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VETERINARY  MEDICINE  SERIES 

No.  2 

Edited  by   D.   M.   Campbell,   D.V.S. 


POULTRY  DISEASES 

With  A   Chapter  On  The 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL 


BY 

B.  F.  KAUPP,  M.S.,  D.V.M. 

I'atholoaiHt    and    Foultrv    Investigator,    Animal    Industry    Division,    North 

Carolina  Experiment  Station  and  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College; 

Formerly  Director  of  Anatomy  Lal)oratory,  Kansas  City  \  eterinary 

College-    Formerlv    Pathologist,    Colorado   Agricultural    College 

and   Experiment    Station:    Formerly   Veterinary    Inspector, 

B.  A.  I. 


SECOND  EDITION 


Revised  and  Enlarged 


1  >    '  »  >  ' 


Published    by 

AMERICAN    VETERINARY    PUBLISHING    CO., 

Chicago 


'>>«^6 


Copyright  1917  By 
AMERICAN  VETERINARY    PUBLISHING    CO. 


MAJN  LIBRARY.. -rJRJC'JLTURE  DEI 


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FOREWORD  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

This  book  is  written  to  fill  a  demand  from  veterinary^  stu- 
dents, students  in  poultry  husbandry  courses  at  agrieultural 
colleges,  veterinary  practitioners  and  others  interested  in  the 
scientific  treatment  of  poultry  diseases. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  make  the  language  so  plain  that 
all  can  comprehend  the  subject  matter,  which  is  a  summary 
of  results  of  experimental  research  in  the  laboratory  of  path- 
ology of  the  author  and  of  many  other  investigators. 

For  the  purpose  of  simplification,  the  synonyms  are  given 
for  the  various  names  of  diseases.  Then  follow,  in  order,  the 
cause,  or  causes,  the  symptoms,  the  conditions  found  upon 
Dost-mortem  examination,  and  lastly  the  treatment  and  means 
of  eradication  for  each  disease. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  Dr.  D.  :\I.  Campbell,  editor  of  the 
American  Journal  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  for  helpful  sug- 
gestions as  to  arrangement  and  other  matters. 

The  first  edition  being  exhausted  in  so  short  a  time  is  evi- 
dence that  it  met  the  expectations  of  the  author  aiid  the  pub- 
lisher—that it  filled  a  real  need.  This  second  edition  has  been 
thoroughly  revised  and  brought  down  to  date.  IMuch  new 
information  in  the  chapters  on  anatomy  of  the  fowl,  foods 
poisonous   to   fowls   and   poultry   materia   medica   has   been 

added. 

West  Raleigh,  N.  C,  October,  1917.  B.  F.  KAUPP. 


433991 


CONTENTS 

List  of  Illustrations 


SECTION  I. 

Anatomy 17 

The  skeletal  anatomy  of  the  fowl;  the  musculature;  the 
visceral  anatomy;  structure  of  the  digestive  tract  and  its 
adjacent  organs;  structure  of  the  respiratory  tract;  the  cir- 
culatory system;  the  blood  of  normal  fowl;  the  nervous  sys- 
tem; organs  of  special  sense;  the  reproductive  organs  of  the 
hen;   the  male  reproductive  organs;   the  urinary  secretion. 

SECTION  II. 

Sanitation  53 

Site  for  poultry  plant;  buildings  and  runs;  water  sup- 
ply;  disinfection;    disposal  of  sick  and  dead  birds. 

SECTION  III. 

External  Parasites 65 

Lice  of  birds;  effects  of  louse  infestation;  dealing  with 
louse  infestation;  scabies;  scaly  legs;  air  sac  disease;  chig- 
ger  or  red  mite  infestation;  fleas  affecting  birds;  tick  in- 
festation; the  begbug  of  poultry;  fungi  affecting  birds; 
thrush  or  sore  mouth;  tinea  favosa;  pneumomycosis;  my- 
cosis of  pigeons;  white  scale  of  the  comb;  bee  stings;  the 
gray  canary  louse;   the  canary  mite;   baldness  of  canaries. 

SECTION  IV. 

Internal   Parasites   _ 87 

Important  round  worms;  unimportant  round  worms; 
tapeworms;   the  thorn-headed  worms;   flukes. 

SECTION  V. 

Diseases  of  the  Digestive  Tract 101 

Obstruction  of  the  beak;  pip;  stomatitis;  impaction  of 
the  crop;  impaction  of  the  intestines;  tympany  of  the  crop; 
enlarged  crop;  gangrene  of  the  crop;  catarrh  of  the  crop; 
depraved  appetite;  chicken  cholera;  enterohepatitis;  dys- 
entery; white  diarrhea;  croupous  inflammation  of  the  pig- 
eon; coccidiosis  in  wild  ducks;  protozoal  hepatitis  of 
pigeons;  renal  coccidiosis;  blastomycosis  of  the  goose;  sar- 
cocystis;  cloacitis;  peritonitis;  ascites;  nephritis;  calculi; 
purulent  inflammation  of  the  abdomen  of  the  hen;  intes- 
tinal diseases  of  canaries. 


6  CONTENTS 

SECTION  VI. 

Blood  Diseases  133 

Apoplectiform  septicemia  in  chickens  and  pigeons;  sep- 
ticemia of  geese;  fowl  typhoid;  myeloid  leukemia;  sleep- 
ing sickness  of  chickens;  septicemic  diseases  of  canary 
birds;  fowl  pest;  thrombosis;  spirochetosis;  pericarditis; 
endocarditis;  rupture  of  the  heart  and  large  blood  vessels; 
hypertrophy  of  the  heart. 

SECTION  VII. 

Constitutional  Diseases  1 41 

Going  light;  tuberculosis;  pseudo-tuberculosis;  actino- 
mycosis;  disease  of  the  subcutem. 

SECTION  VIII. 

Diseases  of  the  Liver 149 

Fatty  degeneration:  fatty  infiltration;  rupture  of  the 
liver;  inflammation  of  the  liver;  inflammation  of  the  bile 
ducts;   enterohepatitis;    unimportant  diseases. 

SECTION  IX. 

Diseases  of  the  Ovary  and  Oviduct 153 

Prolapse  or  eversion  of  the  oviduct;  obstruction  of  the 
oviduct;  rupture  of  the  oviduct;  broken  eggs  in  oviduct; 
prolapse  of  the  cloaca;  abnormal  eggs;  epizootic  abortion 
in  birds;  inflammation  of  the  oil  gland. 

SECTION  X. 

Tumors  159 

Hematoma;   multiple  tumors  of  the  ovary;   cystic  ovary; 
abdominal    cyst;    contagious    epithelioma;    sarcoma;     tera- 
toma;   adenoma;    epithelioma;    osteoma;    horny  growths  on 
the  cuticular  surface  of  fowls. 

SECTION  XI. 

Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  Passages 167 

Obstruction  of  the  trachea;  catarrh;  asthma;  ulcerative 
pharyngitis;  bronchitis;  congestion  of  the  lungs;  pneumo- 
nia; pneumomycosis;  swell-head  in  young  turkeys;  chick- 
enpox;  diphtheric  roup;  pox  of  turkeys;  contagious  inflam- 
mation of  the  air  sacs  in  geese;  contagious  nasal  catarrh 
of  birds;  conjunctivitis;  ulceration  of  the  cornea;  respira- 
tory troubles  of  canaries;   asthma  of  canaries. 

SECTION  XII. 

Diseases  of  the  Organs  of  Locomotion 187 

Leg  weakness;  infectious  articular  inflammation  in 
young  geese  and  ducks;  paralysis  of  the  wings  of  pigeons; 
abscess  of  the  foot;  gout  of  fowls. 


CONTENTS  7 

SECTION  XIII. 

Diseases  of  the  Brain  and  Nerves 195 

Dizziness;   hemorrhage  of  the  brain;   epilepsy;   myelitis; 
polyneuritis;    paralysis  of  the  auditory  nerve  of  the  fowl. 

SECTION  XIV. 
Bacteria  of  the  Intestinal  Tract  of  Chickens 201 

SECTION  XV. 

The  Egg 203 

Composition;  parasites  in  eggs;  bacteria  of  eggs;  bac- 
teria in  fresh  eggs. 

SECTION  XVI. 
Malformations    207 

SECTION  XVII. 

Fractures — Wounds — Anesthesia 211 

Repair  of  the  fracture  of  bones  of  the  domestic  fowl; 
wounds;  anesthesia  and  restraint  of  the  fowl;  injury  to 
the  sternum;   gangrene;   frozen  combs;   broken  beak. 

SECTION  XVIII. 

Castration  of  the  Bird 221 

Caponizing;   ovariectomy  of  the  pullet. 

SECTION  XIX. 

Foods  Poisonous  to  Fowls 227 

The  rose  chafer;  arsenical  poisoning;  salt  poisoning; 
other  mineral  poisons;  ptomain  poisoning;  botulism;  corn 
cockle  poisoning. 

SECTION  XX. 

Poultry  Remedies 231 

Poultry  materia  medica. 
Index  241 


ILLUSTRATIOXS 


FIG.  PAGE 

1.  The  Bony  Skeleton  of  the  Domestic  Fowl 12 

2.  The  Visceral  Organs  of  the  Hen 14 

3.  Visceral  Organs  of  the  Right  Side  of  a  Fowl 23 

4.  Visceral  Organs  of  the  Left  Side  of  a  Fowl 24 

5.  Section  Through  the  Median  Line  of  a  Pullet 25 

6.  Transverse  Section  Through  the  Thoracic  Region 27 

7.  Heart  of  Fowl  with  Its  Main  Branches 33 

8.  Blood  Vessels  of  the  Pelvis  and  Thigh  of  the  Fowl 35 

9.  Brain  and  Eyeball  of  the  Fowl 37 

10.  Section  Through  the  Eye  of  a  Hen 39 

11.  Cochlear  Labyrinth  of  a  Hen 40 

12.  The  Pelvic  Organs  of  a  Pullet 42 

13.  The  Pelvic  Organs  of  a  Hen 43 

14.  Section  of  Ovary  of  the  Hen 45 

15.  Diagrammatic  Structure  of  the  Egg 46 

16.  Generative  Organs  of  a  Cockerel 48 

17.  Pelvic   Cavity  of  a  Cock 49 

1 8.  Spermatozoa 50 

19.  Menopon  Biseriatum 66 

20.  Menopon  Pallidum 66 

21.  Goniocotes   Hologaster 67 

22.  Lipeurus  Infuscatus 67 

23.  Goniodes   Stylifer 67 

24.  Lipeurus  Baculus 68 

25.  Eggs  of  the  Goniodes  Stylifer 68 

26.  Inexpensive,  Durable  Spray  Pump 71 

27.  Sarcoptes  Mutans 73 

28.  Scaly  Legs 74 

29.  Cytodites  Nudus 75 

30.  Trombidium    Holosericeum 76 

31.  Dermanyssus  Gallinse 79 

32.  Pulex   Avium 80 

33.  Sarcopsylla  Gallinacea ". 81 

34.  Argas  Miniatus 82 

35.  Acanthia  Inodora 83 

36.  Ascaris    Inflexa 88 

37.  Heterakis  Papillosa 88 

38.  Heterakis  Papillosa,  Head  Extremity 88 

39.  Heterakis  Papillosa,  Tail  Extremity 90 

40.  Spiroptera    Hamulosa 91 

41.  Syngamus   Trachealis 92 

42.  Taenia  Infundibuliformis 96 

43.  Nodular  Taeniasis 97 

44.  Blood  Smear  from  Case  of  Cholera 107 

45.  Enterohepatitis  in  a  Turkey 112 

46.  Cloudy  Swelling  Due  to  Enterohepatitis 113 

47.  Section  of  Liver  from  a  Case  of  Enterohepatitis 114 

48.  Blood  Smear  from  a  Case  of  Enterohepatitis 115 

49.  Section  of  Kidney  from  Turkey  That  Died  of  Enterohepatitis  116 

50.  Cecum  from  a  Case  of  Enterohepatitis  in  a  Turkey 117 


ILLU8TEATI0XS 

FIG.  PAGE 

51.  Hemorrhagic  Enteritis  in  a  Hen 118 

52.  Section  Through  Cecum  from  Case  of  White  Diarrhea 122 

53.  Coccidium  Tenellum  in  Various  Stages 122 

54.  Croupous  Inflammation  in  a  Pigeon 124 

55.  Pulmonary  Coccidiosis  in  a  Duck 127 

56.  Intestinal  Coccidiosis  in  a   Duck 127 

57.  Thrombosis  in  a  Hen 137 

58.  Spirocheta   Gallinarum 138 

59.  Acute    Spirochetosis 138 

60.  Hematoma  of  Ovary  in  a  Hen 159 

61.  Multiple  Tumors  of  Ovary  of  a  Hen 161 

62.  Hen  With  an  Abdominal  Cyst 162 

63.  Heads  of  Two  Chicks  Affected  with  Contagious  Epithelioma  163 

64.  Obstruction   of    the    Trachea 167 

65.  Chickenpox  174 

66.  Roup  in  a  Chicken 175 

67.  Diphtheric  Roup  in  a  Chicken 177 

68.  Skiagraph  of  Head  and  Neck  of  Chicken 181 

69.  Ulceration  of  the  Cornea 184 

70.  Thorn  Abscess 190 

71.  Paralysis  of  the  Auditory  Nerve 199 

72.  Monster  Chick   (dipygus  tetrabrachium) 207 

73.  Polymelus  208 

74.  Umbilical  Hernia  of  a  Baby  Chick 209 

75.  Sections  Through  Bones  at  Different  Stages  of  Fractures....213 

76.  Poultry  Operating  Table 216 

77.  Injury  to  Sternum 217 

78.  Gangrene  of  the  Foot  of  a  Turkey 218 

79.  Top  of  Barrel  As  An  Operating  Table 223 

80.  Capon  and  Cock 225 


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EXPLANATION  OF  FIG.  1 

Head  and  Neck 

1,  OS  incisivum — premaxilla:  2,  anterior  nasal  opening;  3,  os  nasale 
— nasal  bone;  4,  os  lacrimale — lacrimal  bones;  5,  lamina  perpen- 
dicularis  of  the  ethmoid  bone;  6,  os  dentale — inferior  maxilla  or 
lower  jaw;  7,  the  malar  bone;  8,  os  quadratojugal;  9,  os  pterygoi- 
deum — pterygoid  bone;  10,  os  qiiadratum;  11,  os  auriciilare;  12, 
foramen  or  opening  for  the  passage  of  the  fifth  nerve  from  the 
cranial  cavity;   13,  atlas  or  first  cervical  vertebra. 

Trunk  and  Limbs 

14,  OS  carpi  radiale;  15,  radius;  16,  first  digit  (thumb) — false  wing 
bone;  17,  metacarpus;  18,  second  (middle  or  large)  digit;  19,  third 
(rudimentary)  digit;  20,  os  carpi  ulnare;  21,  os  ulnae  (elbow); 
22,  OS  humeri;  23,  dorsal  (thoracic)  vertebra;  24,  os  scapulare; 
25,  ilium;  26,  foramen  ischiaticum;  27,  coccygeal  (caudal)  vertebrae; 
28,  ploughshare  bone;  29,  foramen  obturatum;  30,  ischium;  31, 
uncinate  process  of  the  rib;  32,  vertebral  portion  of  the  rib;  33, 
OS  clavicula;  34,  os  coracoideum;  85,  femur  (thigh  bone)  ;  36,  pubis; 
37,  sternum — breastbone;  38,  lateral  internal  process  of  sternum; 
39,  costal  process  of  sternum;  40,  keel  of  the  sternum;  41,  sternal 
portion  of  the  rib  attaching  to  the  sternum;  42,  lateral  external 
process  of  the  sternum;  43,  fibula;  44,  posterior  process  of  the 
sternum;  45,  internal  notch  of  sternum;  46,  patella  (knee  cap); 
47,  tibia;  48.  metatarsus;  49,  50,  53,  principal  digits;  51,  rudimentary 
digit;  52,  first  toe. 


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Fig.  2.     The  X'iscickal  UK'ians  of  the  Hex. 


EXPLANATION  OF  FIG.  2 

Digestive  and  Genito-urinary  Tract 

1,  beak;  "I,  tongue;  3,  pharynx;  4,  esophagus  (gullet);  5,  crop; 
6.  second  portion  of  esophagus;  7,  proventrlculus;  8,  gizzard;  9,  duo- 
denum; 10,  first  portion- of  thi  small  intestine;  11,  floating  portion 
of  small  intestine;  12,  ceca;  13,  blind  extremities  of  ceca;  14,  colon 
15,  rectum;  16,  cloaca;  17,  opening  of  egg  sac  into  rectum;  18,  anus 
19,  mesentery;  20,  opening  from  ureter  into  rectum;  21,  kidney 
22,  left  ovary;  IJ,  egg  canal;  25,  pancreas;  26,  liver  (turned  back) 
27,  gall  bladder;   28,  spleen. 

Organs  of  Respiration 

29,  nostrils;  30,  frontal  sinus;  31,  maxillary  (infraorbital)  sinus; 
32.  turbinated  bone;  33,  posterior  nares;  34,  glottis;  35,  larynx;  36. 
trachea   (wind-pipe);    37,  false  larynx;   38,  lung. 

Organs  of  Circulation 

39,  heart  (pulled  down  to  bring  it  into  view);  40,  aorta;  41,  left 
brachial  artery;    42,  cartoid  artery. 


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SECTION  I 

ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL 

In  the  young  bird  the  bones,  for  the  most  part,  contain 
cavities  filled  with  red  marrow.  In  the  adult  bird  these  cavi- 
ties are  largely  filled  with  air.  The  air  passes  from  the  res- 
piratory organs  into  these  cavities.  This  air  is  supposed  to 
be  renewed  in  the  process  of  respiration.  In  the  running 
birds  most  of  the  bones  contain  marrow.  Separate  bronchial 
tubes  of  the  lungs  are  continued  by  the  air  sacs  w^hich  com- 
municate with  the  air  spaces  of  the  bones.  The  air  spaces  are 
more  abundant  in  the  larger  bones  as  the  humerus,  ulna  and 
radius. 

The  air  passes  into  the  air  passages  and  bony  cavities  of 
the  head,  then  through  the  superior  larynx,  trachea  and  in- 
ferior larynx  into  the  bronchi.  From  air  tubules  here,  the  air 
passes  into  the  air  cells  of  the  body  cavities  and  then  into 
the  air  cells  of  the  bones.  In  the  process  of  breathing  the 
air  is  drawn  out  of  the  air  sacs  located  in  the  body  and  bone 
cavities.  Fresh  air  in  turn  is  forced  through  the  small  com- 
municating tubules  which  enter  the  hollow  bones  through 
small  openings  in  their  bony  Avails. 

For  study  of  the  skeleton  it  may  be  divided  into  the  three 
regions :  head  and  neck,  the  trunk  and  the  limbs. 

THE  HEAD  AND  NECK 
(The  numbers  refer  to  Fig.  1) 

The  bird's  head  is  rather  small  and  conical  in  shape  and 
is  composed  of  several  bones  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  os  in- 
cisivum  or  premaxilla  (1)  forms  the  anterior  point  and 
base  of  the  upper  jaw.  It  is  elongated  anteriorly  into  a  V 
point  in  the  fowl  and  flattened  in  the  water  fowl  as  the  duck 
and  goose.  This  portion  constitutes  the  beak.  This  bone, 
together  with  the  os  dentale  (6)  forms  the  prehensile  organ 
or  means  of  picking  both  solids  and  liquids.  This  organ  con- 
tains the  anterior  nasal  opening  (2)  through  which  air  passes 
on  its  Avay  to  the  lungs.  The  lamina  perpendicularis  of  the 
ethmoid  l)one  (5)  forms  a  thin  wall  ])et\veen  the  two  orbits 
or  eye  cavities.  It  contains  an  opening  or  foramen  for  the 
passage  of  the  optic  nerve  and  a  smaller  opening,  the  ethmoid 
foramen,  for  the  passage  of  the  ethmoid  nerve.  The  os 
palatinum  or  palatine  bone  encircles  the  guttural  opening  of 
the  nasal  passage  and  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  hard 


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palate  or  roof  of  the  mouth.  It  articulates  with  the  pterygoid, 
superior  maxilla  and  premaxilla.  The  os  pterygoideum  or 
pterygoid  bone  (9),  articulates  with  the  sphenoid  and  os 
quadratum  (10).  The  os  quadratum  articulates  with  the 
temporal,  maxilla,  zygomatic  and  pterj^goid.  The  os  auricu- 
lare  (11)  is  interposed  between  the  maxilla  and  quadrate 
bone.  The  atlas  (13)  or  first  cervical  vertebra  articulates 
anteriorly  with  the  condyle  of  the  occipital  bone  and  the  axis, 
the  latter  being  located  posteriorly. 

There  are  fourteen  cervical  vertebrae  in  the  fowl,  fifteen 
in  the  duck,  eighteen  in  the  goose  and  twelve  in  the  pigeon. 

The  long  column  of  cervical  vertebrae  serves  as  a  sort  of 
balancing  pole,  and  by  changing  in  form  and  direction  it 
varif'S  the  center  of  gravity.  In  flying,  the  bird  changes  the 
centi^r  of  gravity  from  the  region  over  the  legs  to  the  region 
of  the  wings.  AYhen  at  rest  the  head  and  neck  are  thrown 
backwards,  carrying  the  center  of  gravity  back  over  the  legs. 
The  first  cervical  vertebra  is  the  atlas.  This  is  the  smallest 
of  the  vertebrae  and  is  ring-shaped.  Anteriorly  it  articu- 
lates with  the  single  condyle  of  the  occipital  bone.  This 
anterior  articular  surface  is  half-moon  shaped  and  forms  a 
deep  articular  joint  called  a  ball  and  socket  joint.  This 
type  of  joint  makes  possible,  movements  in  all  directions. 
The  condyle  of  the  occiput  also  touches  an  articular  end  of 
the  odontoid  process  of  the  axis  or  second  cervical  vertebra. 
Posteriorly  there  are  found  two  small  lateral  wings  possessing 
articular  facets  which  articulate  with  similar  facets  on  the 
lateral  wings  of  the  axis.  The  posterior  part  of  the  body 
is  provided  with  an  articular  facet  which  articulates  Avith  a 
similar  articular  surface  on  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body 
of  the  axis. 

The  body  of  each  succeeding  vertebra  articulates  Avith  the 
one  immediately  anterior  and  i:>osterior  to  it.  Between  each 
two  is  a  pad  of  fibro-cartilage.  Above  these  bodies  and 
below  the  neural  spines,  we  find  a  large  neural  canal  which 
is  occupied  by  the  spinal  cord.  Between  each  two  vertebral 
segments  in  the  cervical  region,  the  neural  canal  is  exposed, 
due  to  the  neural  arches  incompletely  bridging  the  canal  in 
that  location.  This  space  is  protected  or  bridged  over  ])y  an 
intervertebral  ligament. 

The  dor.sal  spines  of  the  cervical  vertebra  are  very  small, 
the  ventral  are  more  distinct.  The  anterior  oblique  spines 
are  provided  on  their  under  sui'faces  with  articuhir  facets, 
which  articulate  with  similar  articular  facets  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  posterior  olilique  process  of  the  verte))ral  segment 
in  front.     The  ventral  spine  on  the  last  cervical  segment  is 


ANATO:\IY  OF  THE  FOWL  19 

well  developed.  The  transverse  processes  on  either  side  of 
the  cervical  vertebra  are  penetrated  by  a  vertebral  foramen 
Through  each  of  this  series  of  foramina  passes  a  vertebral 
artery,  vertebral  vein  and  a  spinal  nerve.  The  transverse 
processes  of  the  last  cervical  vertebra  are  provided  with 
ridges  and  excavations  for  muscular  and  tendinous  attach- 
ments. 

TRUNK 

(The  numbers  refer  to  Fig.  1) 

The  dorsal  or  thoracic  vertebrae  (23)  number  seven  in  the 
fowl  and  pigeon,  and  nine  in  the  duck  and  goose.  These 
bones  are  usually  fused  or  consolidated,  giving  great  support 
and  stability  to  the  wing.  The  dorsal  vertebral  region  is 
short  The  first  and  sixth  vertebrae  articulate  similar  to 
the  cervical  vertebra,  that  is,  by  the  bodies  and  the  oblique 
processes  The  seventh  dorsal  is  fused  with  the  first  lum- 
bosacral vertebra.  The  transverse  processes  of  the  dorsal 
vertebrae  from  the  second  to  the  sixth  are  well  developed  and 
bridged  over  with  a  thin  wing  of  bone.  The  ventral  spines  are 
well  developed  and  partly  fused  to  form  a  continuous  ridge. 

In  the  bird  the  lumbar  and  sacral  vertebrae  are  consolidated. 
In  the  embryo  there  are  fourteen  distinct  vertebrae  which 
soon  consolidate  with  each  other  and  with  the  ribs.  With 
these  vertebral  segments  are  fused  the  last  dorsal  and  first 
coccygeal  vertebral  segments.  This  fusion  is  so  complete  that 
the  segments  are  indicated  only  by  the  intervertebral  foramina 
through  which  the  spinal  nerves  extend.  This  fused  lum- 
bosacral region  forms  the  roof  of  the  pelvic  region.  Ihe 
lumbosacral  vertebrae  and  ilia  are  fused.  The  dorsal  spines 
of  the  vertebral  segments  are  indicated  only  m  the  anterior 
portion. 

The  ioints  of  the  coccygeal  or  caudal  vertebrae  (2  0  are 
freelv  movable  since  in  the  birds  of  flight  the  tail  is  used  as 
a  rudder.     The  terminal  bone  (28)  is  called  the  ploughshare 

"^There  are  seven  coccygeal  vertebrae.  The  last  segment  is 
the  larger  and  is  supposed  to  have  originated  from  the  fusion 
of  several  segments.  It  is  shaped  like  a  ploughshare  and  is 
called  the  pygostyle.  It  supports  that  part  which  gives  rise 
to  the  twelve  main  tail  feathers. 

The  ribs  are  divided  into  the  true  and  false. 

The  true  ribs  articulate  with  the  sternum  by  means  ot  an 
intermediate  bone.  The  false  ribs  do  not  articulate  witli 
the  sternum,  but  are  floating.  ..         ^  .i 

The  first  rib  articulates  with  the  quadrate  portion  ot  the 


20  POFLTKY  DISEASES 

last  cervical  vertebra  and  the  first  dorsal  segment.  The  last 
rib  articulates  witli  the  under  side  of  the  ilium  at  its  ante- 
rior alar  portion.  Tliis  rib  is  situated  similar  to  the  true  ribs, 
but  instead  of  articulating  directly  with  the  sternum  the  sec- 
ond portion  lies  against  the  second  portion  of  the  rib  just 
anterior  to  it.  The  ribs  are  provided  with  two  articular 
facets  on  the  dorsal  portion,  and  these  articulate  with  simi- 
lar facets  on  the  dorsal  vertebrae.  The  true  ribs  are  called 
sternal  ribs,  and  each  succeeding  sternal  rib  is  longer  than 
the  one  preceding  it.  Nearer  and  nearer  these  ribs  assume  a 
horizontal  position.  The  proximal  end  of  the  sternal  rib 
articulates  with  the  distal  end  of  the  vertebral  rib.  Th.e 
sternal  end  is  provided  with  two  small  ridges. 

From  the  posterior  border  of  the  second,  third,  fourth  and 
fifth  vertebral  ribs  and  near  their  middles  are  flat  uncinate 
l)ony  processes  projecting  upward  and  forward  overlying  the 
succeeding  rib,  giving  greater  surface  for  muscular  attach- 
ments and  greater  stability  to  the  thorax.  The  vertebral  por- 
tion of  the  rib  (32)  articulates  inferiorly  with  the  sternal 
portion  (41)  joining  it  to  the  sternum  or  breastbone,  with 
which  it  articulates.  The  two  portions  of  the  rib  are  joined 
by  a  diarthrodial  articulation.  The  uncinate  process  of  the 
rib  (31),  is  flat  and  projects  backward  onto  the  succeeding 
rib,  giving  added  stability  to  the  thorax.  These  processes 
are  absent  from  the  first  and  last  ribs. 

The  sternum  or  breastbone  is  a  large  four-sided  plate  of 
bone,  the  posterior  portion  of  which  overlaps  the  ribs  on  the 
outer  side.  On  the  inferior  portion  of  the  sternum  there  is 
a  leaf-like  ridge  called  the  crista  sterna  or  breast  ridge 
(or  keel).  This  bony  expansion  gives  a  greater  surface  for 
the  attachment  of  muscles. 

The  sides  are  provided  Avith  an  external  and  an  internal 
process  forming  an  internal  and  an  external  notch.  These 
notches  are  bridged  over  by  a  broad  ligament,  to  which  the 
muscles  are  attached.  In  the  poor  flyers,  as  the  fowls,  these 
notches  are  large.  The  sternal  end  posteriorly  is  called  tlie 
zyphoid  process.  Anteriorly  it  is  provided  Avith  lateral  ex- 
ternal processes,  the  costal  processes.  In  the  center  of  the 
anterior  part  is  the  episternal  process. 

LIMBS 

The  OS  scapulare  (24)  is  elongated,  narrow  and  presents 
smooth  surfaces.  Anteriorly  it  forms  a  portion  of  the  gle- 
noid cavity  and  is  united  to  the  fork  of  the  coracoid  bv  menus 
of  fibro-cartilage. 

The  OS  clavicula  (33)  terminates  l»eh>\v  in  the  hypocU'idcnm 


anato:my  op  the  fowl  21 

(57)  and  unites  to  the  breastbone  by  means  of  a  ligament. 
The  superior  extremity  rests  within  and  opposite  the  glenoid 
cavity,  against  the  scapula  (24)  and  coracoid  (34).  These 
three  bones  form  a  passageway  through  which  extends  the 
tendon  of  the  levator  muscle  of  the  wing.  This  ])one  is  termed 
the  "wish  bone."  Its  forks  are  elastic  and  prevent  the  wings 
coming  toward  each  other  during  contraction  of  the  depressor 
muscles.  The  os  coracoideum  (34),  with  the  scapula,  forms  a 
glenoid  cavity  at  its  proximal  end  in  which  articulates  the 
head  of  the  humerus.  Inferiorly  it  articulates  with  the  ster- 
num. The  OS  humeri  (22)  presents  an  articular  head  inferiorly 
which  occupies  the  glenoid  cavity.  It  articulates  superiorly 
with  the  radius  (15)  and  ulna  (21).  The  os  ulnae  is 
larger  than  the  radius.  This  bone  articulates  inferiorly 
with  the  humerus  and  superiorly  with  the  carpus  in  company 
with  the  radius  and  is  provided  with  a  short  olecranon  in- 
feriorly. The  two  bones  meet  at  l)oth  extremities  but  bow 
apart  in  the  middle.  A  strong  ligament  binds  the  ends  so 
that  pronation  and  supination  is  impossible.  This  limits 
movements  to  a  gliding  motion  lengthwise.  The  carpus  is 
made  up  of  two  bones,  the  os  carpi  radiale  (14)  and  the  os 
carpi  ulnare  (20).  The  metacarpus  (17)  consists  originally 
of  two  bones  but  they  are  fused  or  consolidated  at  the  ex- 
tremities. The  first  digit,  thumb  or  false  wing  bone  (16)  is 
a  styloid-shaped  phalanx.  The  second,  middle  or  large  digit 
(18),  consists  of  two  phalanges,  the  second  phalanx  (34),  and 
the  third  or  rather  rudimentary  finger  (19). 

The  pelvis  is  voluminous  and  very  strong.  The  three  pairs 
of  bones  composing  it  are:  the  ilium  (25)  ;  the  ischium  (30)  ; 
and  the  pubis  (36). 

The  ilium  is  long  and  is  consolidated  with  the  last  two 
dorsal,  the  lumbar  and  the  sacral  vertebrae.  It  is  excavated 
on  the  internal  face  to  receive  the  kidneys. 

The  ischium  forms  a  part  of  the  sides  of  the  pelvic  cavity. 

The  pubis  is  long  and  thin  and  extends  along  the  inferior 
border  of  the  ischium. 

The  femur  or  thigh  bone  (35)  articulates  superiorly  with 
the  ilium  by  the  cotyloid  cavity.  This  cavity  is  provided 
with  a  foramen  or  opening  at  its  bottom  which  passes  through 
the  bone.  The  femur  articulates  inferiorly  with  the  patella 
(46),  the  fibula  (43)  and  with  the  tibia  (47).  The  fibula 
articulates  superiorly  with  the  external  condyle  of  the  femur 
and  the  head  of  the  tibia  and  inferiorly  is  consolidated  with 
the  tibia.  The  tibia  terminates  below  in  two  condyles  which 
articulate  with  the  proximal  end  of  the  metatarsus,  (48).  The 


22  POULTRY  DISEASES 

metatarsus  terminates  inferiorly  with  three  artieuhir  sur- 
faces or  facets  which  articulate  with  the  three  principal  digits, 
(49),  (50)  (53).  A  conical  eminence  is  noted  near  the  inferior 
third  which  turns  hackwards  and  is  the  base  of  the  spur.  ^lost 
fowls  have  four  digits.  The  os  metatarsale  or  rudimentary 
digit  (51)  projects  backward  and  is  made  up  of  three  pha- 
langes. The  second  or  internal  toe  (49)  is  provided  with  three 
phalanges,  the  third  or  middle  toe  (53)  is  provided  with  four 
phalanges,  and  the  external  or  fourth  toe  (50)  is  jorovided 
with  five  phalanges. 

VISCERAL  ANATOMY  OF  THE  HEN 

THE    DIGESTIVE    TRACT 

Mouth 

The  mouth  cavity  is  characterized  by  the  changing  of  the 
jaw  bones  into  the  beak.  There  are  no  teeth.  The  tongue  is 
shaped  like  an  Indian  arrow,  with  prominent,  rather  hard 
and  sharp  pointed  papillae,  along  its  posterior  border. 

There  is  an  upper  and  lower  beak.  The  upper  beak  is  pro- 
vided with  sharp  free  edges.  There  are  no  lips  or  cheeks. 
The  upper  jaw  forms  the  base  of  the  upper  beak,  and  the 
lower  jaw  forms  the  base  of  the  lower  beak.  The  beaks  are 
covered  by  a  continuation  of  the  epidennis.  The  beak  is 
formed  of  horn-like  material  that  is  rather  hard  and  resists 
wear  to  which  it  is  subjected. 

In  many  water  birds,  as  geese  and  ducks,  a  thin  dermoid 
structure  is  formed  over  the  edges  of  the  beak,  in  which 
numerous  branches  of  the  trigeminus  terminate  in  taste  buds. 

In  chickens  the  beak  terminates  in  a  sharp  point,  while 
in  water  birds,  as  geese  and  ducks,  the  beak  is  flat,  spatula- 
like, and  grooved  transversely  at  its  free  margin.  The  roof 
of  the  mouth  (hard  palate)  is  provided  with  a  slit  that  ex- 
tends antero-posteriorly,  and  is  about  one  inch  in  length ; 
this  is  the  posterior  nares.  There  are  on  the  hard  palate  four 
or  more  cross  bars,  each  of  which  is  provided  with  hard  fili- 
form papillae  that  point  backward.  The  tongue  presents  a 
flat  surface  superiorly,  and  is  covered  by  a  thick  strata  of 
corneous  epithelium.  The  dorsum  (upper  surface)  is  pro- 
vided Avitli  many  small  Aliform  papillae,  that  point  back- 
wards. The  ])ody  of  the  tongue  is  made  up  of  muscles  and 
connective  tissue.  The  tongue  of  swinnning  birds  is  thinner 
tlian  that  of  chickens.  The  tongue  is  an  organ  ])ossessing 
both  of  the  senses,  taste  and  touch.  The  transverse  I'ow  of 
filiform  papillae  of  the  posterior  portion  of  the  roof  of  the 


ANATO:\IY  OF  THP:  FOWL 


23 


mouth  marks  the  border  between  the  oral  and  pharyngeal 
eavities.  Both  palatine  and  maxillary  salivary  glands  are 
present.  The  parotid,  submaxillary  and  sublingual  glands 
are  present  also  in  some  species  of  birds,  but  are  rather  rudi- 
mentary. They  have  duets  through  Avhieli  their  secretions  are 
discharged  into  the  mouth. 

Pharynx 

The  mouth  cavity  terminates  in  the  pharynx.  The  pharynx 
is  covered  b.y  a  mucous  membrance.  There  is  a  transverse 
ridge,   provided   with  filifonn  papillae   pointing  backwards, 


Fig.  3.     Visceral  Organs  of  the  Right  Side  of  a  Fowl. 

The  right  abdominal  and  thoracic  walls  have  been  removed;  6,  duodenal  loop;  7, 
pancreas;  8,  small  intestines;  10,  rectum;  11,  ceca;  12,  right  lung;  12a,  right  lobe  of 
the  liver;  13,  base  of  the  heart;  17,  kidney;  18,  the  gall  bladder  located  on  the  right 
lobe   of  the   liver.      The  gizzard  is  not  visible   from  the   right   side. 


and  located  on  the  supero-posterior  portion  of  the  larynx,  that 
marks  the  posterior  edge  of  the  pharynx. 

The  pharynx  communicates  with  the  mouth  cavity  anteri- 
orly and  with  the  esophagus  and  larynx  posteriorly. 

Esophagus 

The  esophagus  is  a  nuiscular  tube  lying  posterior  to  the 
trachea.  The  tirst  portion  passes  over  to  the  right  side  as  it 
reaches  the  anterior  surface  of  the  breast,  where  it  forms  an 
expansion  called  the  crop.  The  second  portion  enters  the 
thorax  through  the  anterior  thoracic  opening  and  occupies  a 


24 


POULTRY  DTS^EASES 


between   the 


lungs 


and   passes   over   the  base   of  the 


space 

heart.  Some  areas  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  crop 
contain  mucous  glands.  The  crop  is  simple  in  the  fowl,  form- 
ing two  symmetrical  sacs  in  the  pigeon  and  spindle-formed 
in  ducks  and  geese.  In  the  pigeon  during  and  shortly  after 
hatching  time,  in  both  sexes,  it  produces  a  milky  fluid  which 
serves  as  nourishment  for  the  young.  The  esophagus  termi- 
nates in  the  stomach. 

Stomach 

Some  anatomists  call  the  proventriculus  the  pars  glandula- 
ris and  the  gizzard  the  pars  muscularis.    The  pars  glandularis 


b      7 


Fig.  4.  Visceral  Organs  of  the  Left  Side  of  a  Fowl. 
The  left  abdominal  and  thoracic  walls  have  been  removed;  4,  the  proventriculus;  5, 
gizzard;  6,  extreme  end  of  the  duodenal  loop;  7,  pancreas;  8,  the  small  intestines;  12, 
lungs  (it  will  be  noted  that  the  lungs  occupy  the  superior  part  of  tlie  thoracic  cavity 
and  that  there  is  no  distinct  pleural  sac,  but  that  the  lungs  push  up  between  the  ribs; 
in  fact,  the  ribs  are  covered  on  the  inner  and  lateral  sides  by  the  lungs);  12a,  the 
liver;   13,  base  of  the  heart;   17,  kidney;    18,  diaphragm. 

(proventriculus)  lies  dorsal  to,  and  midway  between,  the  two 
lobes  of  the  liver,  taking  an  oblique  course  to  the  left.  It 
terminates  in  the  gizzard.  Its  mucous  surface  is  studded  ])y 
papilhi-like  projections,  which  furnish  openings  to  glands  of 
the  type  of  those  in  the  fundus  of  tlio  stomncli  of  tlie  horse 
nnd  othor  qiuulnipods. 

Gizzard 

The  pars  muscularis  is  round,  muscular  and  flattened  ImI- 
erally  and  lies  to  the  right  and  posterior  to  the  proventriculus. 


ANATO:\[Y  OF  THE  FOWL 


25 


It  lies  partly  behind  and  partly  between  the  lobes  of  the  liver 
and  consists  of  a  hollow  organ.  It  is  somewhat  contracted 
at  the  sides  and  stands  obliquely  in  the  abdominal  cavity. 
In  granniiverons  birds  tlie  walls  are  very  thick,  T)eing'  made 
up  for  the  most  part  of  two  powerful  muscles.  The  cavity 
is  lined  with  a  very  thick  stratified  epithelium.  These  heavy 
horny  pads  form  grinding  surfaces.  Certain  portions  of  the 
mucous  lining  contain  mucous  glands,  which  l)y  some  anato- 
mists have  been  regarded  as  modified  pyloric  glands  of  mam- 
mals. 

The  small  intestine  originates  on  the  same  side  of  the  giz- 


FiG.  5.  Section  Through  the  Median  Line  of  a  Two-Pound  Pullet, 
No.  1,  the  stump  of  the  first  portion  of  the  esophagus;  2,  left  wall  of  the  crop;  3, 
second  portion  of  the  esophagus  located  just  below  the  vertebra;  4,  the  proventriculus 
lying  anterolaterally  to  the  gizzard,  superoposterior  to  the  liver  and  to  the  left  of 
the  spleen;  5,  the  gizzard;  6,  duodenal  loop;  7,  pancreas;  8,  floating  portion  of  the 
small  intestines;   9,   ovary;    10,   rectum;    11,  ceca;    12a,  liver;   13,   heart. 


zard  that  the  proventriculus  enters  and  al)Out  one-half  inch 
distant. 

Small   Intestine 

The  first  portion  of  the  small  intestine  is  called  the  duode- 
num, which  forms  a  long  loop  called  the  duodenal  loop.  This 
loop  passes  obliquely  to  the  right  side  and  proceeds  along  the 
outer  right  abdominal  wall,  passing  round  toward  the  right 
side,  following  along  the  posterior  abdominal  wall,  where  the 
terminal  portion  of  the  loop  rests.  The  remaining  portion  of 
the  small  intestine  forms  a  thick  coil  supported  by  a  mesen- 


26  POULTRY  DISEASES 

terv  and  occupies  the  space  tetween  the  two  large  abdominal 
air  sacs. 

Large  Intestine 

The  large  intestine  is  very  short.  At  the  point  where  the 
small  intestine  terminates  in  the  large  intestine,  there  is 
given  off  two  long  blind  pouches — the  ceca.  These  blind 
pouches  are  directed  toward  the  head.  The  ceca  in  pigeons 
are  comparatively  short,  while  in  fowls  and  ducks  and  geese 
they  are  quite  long.  The  major  portion  of  the  ceca  is  narrow, 
becoming  larger  in  calibre  near  the  blind  extremity.  The 
large  intestine  or  colon  extends  backward  in  a  straight  line 
with  the  under  surface  of  the  vertebrae  and  terminates  in  the 
cloaca. 

The  entire  length  of  the  alimentary  tract  in  fowls  is  five 
to  six  times,  and  in  geese  and  ducks  four  to  five  times,  the 
length  of  the  body. 

Cloaca 

The  cloaca  is  a  sacculation  with  greater  diameter  than  the 
large  intestine  and  communicates  anteriorly  with  the  large 
intestine  and  opens  to  the  external  world  through  the  anus. 
It  receives  the  feces,  urinary  secretion  and  the  eggs  from 
the  oviduct  in  the  female.  The  vas  deferens  of  the  male 
opens  through  a  papilla  on  the  anal  mucous  membrane.  At 
the  point  where  the  rectum  (large  intestine)  empties  into 
the  cloaca,  there  is  a  strong,  oblique  fold  of  mucous  mem- 
brane. The  ureters  empty  at  the  summit  of  small  papillae 
midway  between  the  vasa  deferens.  The  mouth  of  the  oviduct 
is  a  slit.  In  the  males  of  ducks,  geese  and  swans  there  is 
present  a  copulatory  organ,  somewhat  resembling  the  penis 
of  mammals. 

A  small  round  or  pear-shaped  sac  called  the  bursa  of  Fabri- 
cus  is  located  in  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  cloaca.  The  cavity 
communicates,  through  a  short  canal,  with  the  posterior  bor- 
der of  the  cloaca  close  to  the  anal  wall.  The  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the  bursa  contains  glands.  The  bursa  is  larger 
in  the  young,  but  decreases  in  size  with  age.  It  apparently 
reaches  its  greatest  size  in  chickens  at  about  four  months  of 
age,  at  which  time  it  may  measure  two  to  three  centimeters 
by  one  and  one-half  centimeters.  By  ten  or  eleven  months 
of  age  it  has  become  quite  rudimentary.  Its  function  is  not 
kf\own.     Glands  similar  to  those  of  mammals  are  located  in 

the  intestines. 

Liver 

The  liver  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body  and  consists  of 
two  lobes— a  right  and  a  left.     The  right  lobe  is  somewhat 


ANATOI\rY  OF  THE  FOWL 


27 


larger  than  the  left,  in  most  birds,  except  in  the  turkey  and 
guinea,  where  they  are  of  equal  size.  The  liver  lies  behind 
the  heart,  the  apex  of  which  extends  into  the  fissure  between 
the  anterior  portion  of  its  two  lobes.     The  inferior  surfaces 


t-^ 


Fig,    6.     Transverse    Section    Through    the    Thoracic 
Region,    Looking    Backward. 

No.  1,  spinal  cord;  2,  esophagus;  3,  trachea;  4,  skin; 
5,  pectoral  muscles;  6,  lungs;  7,  heart;  8,  breastbone; 
10.  liver. 

of  the  liver  are  convex  and  covered  by  a  layer  of  visceral 
peritoneum.  The  two  lobes  are  held  together  by  a  small  ligar 
ment.  A  filiform  ligament  extends  from  the  inner  surface 
of  the  sternum  and  becomes  lost  in  the  serous  covering  of 


28  POULTRY  DISEASES 

tliL'  live'i'.  This  ligament  assists  in  holding  tlie  liver  in  posi- 
tion. IMost  species  of  birds  are  provided  with  a  gall  l)ladder, 
which  is  located  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the  right  lobe  of 
the  liver.  In  liirds  without  a  gall  bladder  (pigeons,  guineas) 
the  main  gall  ducts  of  the  two  lobes  of  the  liver  unite  and 
empty  as  one  duct  into  the  duodenum.  In  birds  having  a 
gall  l)ladder  the  ductus  hepaticus  passes  from  the  left  lobe 
of  the  liver  to  the  duodenum,  while  the  bile  from  the  right 
lobe  empties  into  the  gall  bladder,  from  Avhence  the  gall  is 
carried  to  the  duodenum  through  the  ductus  cysticus. 

In  fowls  the  ducts  of  the  liver  and  pancreas  empty  into 
the  duodenum  in  the  following  order :  First,  the  ductus 
pancreaticus,  from  the  pancreas;  second,  the  ductus  hepati- 
cus, directly  from  the  left  lobe  of  the  liver;  and,  third,  the 
ductus  cysticus,  from  the  gall  bladder  of  the  right  loV<e  of 
the  liver.  In  ducks  the  ductus  hepaticus  and  ductus  cysticus 
are  united.  This  common  duct  empties  into  the  duodenum 
close  to  the  pylorus.  The  two  branches  of  the  pancreatic 
duct  empty  close  behind  the  hepatic  duct.  In  the  pigeon 
the  ductus  hepaticus  is  double  and  extends  from  the  left 
lobe,  while  a  third  duct  carries  the  bile  from  the  right  lobe. 
(Gadow.)  There  are  apparently  three  pancreatic  ducts  in 
this  species. 

Pancreas 

The  pancreas  is  a  pale,  long,  yellowish,  lobulated  gland, 
sometimes  called  the  abdominal  salivary  gland,  and  lies  be- 
tween the  two  branches  of  the  long  duodenal  loop.  In  some 
species  of  birds  the  gland  is  divided  into  three  distinct  lobes, 
each  provided  with  its  own  duct,  which  carries  the  secretion 
to  the  duodenum. 

Spleen 

The  structure  of  the  spleen  is  the  same  as  in  other  aniivuils. 
It  is  reddish  brown  in  color  in  the  fowl,  shaped  like  a  horse 
chestnut,  and  lies  to  the  right  in  an  angle  formed  ])y  the 
proventriculus,  liver  and  gizzard.  Its  shape  varies  in  the 
different  species  of  birds.  In  some  it  is  globular,  while  in 
others  lenticulai-. 

THE   RESPIRATORY   TRACT 
Nasal   Cavities 

The  nasal  cavities  are  short  and  narrow.  The  two  nasal 
passages  are  separated  by  a  cartilaginous  sei)tum  and,  in 
part,  by  a  bony  wall.  In  ducks  and  geese  tlie  external  nasal 
opening  is  found  toward  the  base  of  the  beak.     Through  the 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL  29 

openings  one  can  see  through  from  one  nostril  to  the  othei* 
(nares  perviae).  The  external  openings  are  either  round  or 
slit-like.  They  are  often  surrounded  by  a  thin  dermoid  struc- 
ture and  a  border  of  peculiar  feathers.  Each  nostril  is  pro- 
vided with  a  turbinated  bone  divided  into  three  parts,  which 
may  be  considered  as  three  turbinated  bones.  The  middle 
turbinated  bone  is  the  largest  and  the  lower  one  the  smallest. 
A  small,  flat  gland,  peculiar  to  birds  (fowls,  ducks  and 
geese),  lies  on  the  frontal  bone  in  close  proximity  to  the  mesial 
corner  of  the  eye.  A  duct  extends  from  this  gland  forward 
and  empties  into  the  nostrils.  The  posterior  nares  opens  into 
the  mouth  cavity  through  a  slit-like  opening  in  the  roof  of 
the  mouth. 

Larynx 

Air  passes  through  the  nostrils  and  pharynx  into  the  su- 
perior larynx.  The  superior  larynx  is  a  musculo-cartilaginous 
valve  located  at  the  superior  extremity  of  the  trachea.  There 
is  no  epiglottis.  A  ring-like  cartilage,  the  cricoid,  is  located 
at  the  base  of  the  larynx.  This  forms  the  principal  support. 
This  cartilage  is  divided  into  four  parts,  namely,  two  side 
parts,  one  unequal  ventral  part  and  an  unequal  dorsal  part. 
Some  of  these  parts  at  times  and  in  some  species  are  fused. 
The  arytenoid  cartilages,  three  in  number,  are  flexible  and 
joined  to  the  superior  part  of  the  cricoid.  These  cartilages 
bound  supero-posteriorly  the  entrance  of  the  larynx.  At 
times  the  arytenoids  become  partially  bony. 

The  walls  are  smooth  and  in  the  superior  larynx  there 
are  no  vocal  cords.  This  organ  is  sometimes  called  the  larynx 
cranialis,  in  contradistinction  to  the  true  larynx  or  larynx 
caudalis.  The  true  larynx  is  located  at  the  bifurcation  of 
the  trachea  into  the  right  and  left  bronchi;  it  is  provided 
with  delicate  vocal  cords.  This  organ  is  absent  in  voiceless 
birds.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  larynx  bronchio-trachealis. 
In  fowls  it  is  flattened  laterally.  The  last  rings  lie  close 
together  in  fowls,  but  are  connected  in  pigeons  and  more  or 
less  completely  fused  in  geese.  This  structure  is  called  the 
tympanum  (drum).  A  bony,  arrow-like  passage  is  found 
between  the  tympanum  and  the  opening  into  the  bronchi. 
This  bears  a  small  half-moon-shaped  fold,  which  is  concave 
from  above.  On  either  side  of  this  passageway  there  is  lo- 
cated an  elastic  membrane,  the  mebrana  tympaniformis  in- 
terna, Avhich  forms  the  inner  wall  of  the  adjacent  bronchus. 
Laterally  and  between  the  tympanum  and  the  two  bronchial 
rings  on  either  side  there  is  a  membrane  called  the  mem- 
brana  tympaniformis  externa.     Singing  birds  x)ossess  a  well 


30  POL'LTKY  DISEASES 

developed  muscle  which  in  fowls,  ducks  and  geese  is  rudi- 
nlentar3^  In  the  male  duck  the  inferior  extremity  is  en- 
larged into  a  large  sac,  called  the  l)ulla  tympaniformi.s.  The 
left  bronchus  has  a  perceptible  share  in  the  formation  of 
this  bulla.     This  bulla  is  a  resonance  box. 

Trachea 

The  trachea  consists  of  closed  rings  round  in  shape  and 
connected  by  short  connecting  bands.  In  fowls  these  rings  are 
cartilaginous,  while  in  singing  birds  they  may  be  partly  bony. 
The  trachea  is  moved  by  means  of  two  muscles. 

Lungs 

The  lungs  are  two  in  number,  red  to  pink  in  color  and 
firmlv  connected  with  the  costal  wall.  The  ribs  indent  the 
lungs,  allowing  a  part  of  the  outer  surface  to  project  slightly 
})etween  them.  The  ventral  free  surface  is  turned  towards 
the  body  cavity  and  is  covered  by  the  rudimentary  diaphragm. 
The  rudimentary  diaphragm  contains  some  muscular  struc- 
ture and  is  attached  to  the  ribs  and  vertebrae.  The  pointed 
anterior  lobe  extends  to  the  first  rib.  The  posterior  part 
terminates  in  a  broad  surface  and  extends  back  as  far  as  the 
anterior  end  of  the  kidneys.  The  bronchi  communicate  with 
the  air  sacs  by  openings  from  the  posterior  border.  The  two 
bronchi  are  broadened  after  they  enter  the  lung,  which  is  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second  third  and  on  the  ventral  sur- 
face. They  lose  their  cartilaginous  rings  and  continue  as 
duct-like  channels  to  the  extreme  posterior  edge,  where  they 
terminate  into  cartilaginous  rings  called  the  ostium  caudale, 
from  which  point  they  communicate  with  the  ventral  or  large 
abdominal  air  sacs.  Each  bronchus  gives  off  a  ventral 
bronchus,  called  the  bronchus  diaphragmaticus  caudalis, 
through  which  the  air  is  conducted  to  the  ostium  intermedium 
caudale  and  into  the  caudal  cella  thoracica  diaphragmatica. 
Each  bronchus  gives  off  lateral  bronchi  '\\hich  extend  to  the 
ventral  surface  of  the  lung.  They  form  blind  pouches  or  air 
sacs  (alveoli)  near  the  surface  of  the  lung. 

Two  bronchial  systems  take  their  origin  from  the  main 
bronchus,  the  ventral  and  the  dorsal.  The  bronchus  clavicu- 
laris  arises  from  the  dorso-medial  wall  of  the  main  lironchus 
a  short  distance  after  it  enters  the  lung  and  ])efore  it  broad- 
ens out.  This  bronchus  gives  off  a  large  branch,  called  the 
bronchus  cervicalis.  It  bends  round  the  base  of  the  main 
bronchus  and  the  pulmonary  artery  and  supplies  the  dorsal 
surface  of  the  lung,  and  through  the  ostium  claviculare  it 
supplies  air  to  the  air  sacs  on  the  respective  side  (dorsal  air 


ANATO:\rY  OF  THE  FOWL  31 

sac).  It  terminates  close  to  the  middle  of  the  lung,  where  it 
communicates,  through  a  snuiU  opening,  witli  tlie  diaphrag- 
matic air  sac. 

The  bronchus  cervicalis  extends  forward  in  the  direction  oP 
the  original  trunk  and  anteriorly  ccmimunicates  with  the  cer- 
vical air  sac  through  the  ostium  cervicale. 

There  is  also  given  off  from  the  main  bronchus  the  bronchus 
cervicularis  dorsalis  and  medialis.  The  first  extends  witli  a 
few  bronchi  into  the  clavicular  air  sac.  The  bronchus  dia- 
phragrnaticus  cranialis  extends  laterally,  dorsally  and  medi- 
ally, and  terminates  in  the  thoracic  air  sac  through  the  ostium 
intermedium  craniate.  The  bronchus  caudalis  originates 
from  the  dorso-median  wall  and  extends  to  the  caudal  and 
middle  portions  of  the  lung.  There  is  given  off  another 
bronchus  called  the  bronchus  lateralis  from  this  lateral  bron- 
chus. 

There  extend  from  the  main  bronchus  several  bronchi  in 
the  medial  half  of  the  lung.  There  are  six  to  ten  dorsal 
bronchi  (bronchi  dorsales).  Numerous  perpendicular,  nar- 
row, thick-walled  tubes  lying  close  to  each  other  are  given  off 
from  the  dorsal  Avail  of  the  main  l)ronchus  and  other  bronchi 
mentioned.  These  tubes  have  been  called  the  ^'lung  pipes," 
which  by  lateral  pressure  become  five-  or  six-sided  tubes.  The 
mass  of  the  lungs  are  made  up  of  these  tubes.  These  tubes 
terminate  near  the  surface  of  the  lung.  The  ends  of  these 
tulies,  Avhicli  lie  at  right  angles  to  the  main  channel,  form 
sacculations  somewhat  simulating  the  air  sacs  of  mammals. 
Connective  tissue,  through  which  pass  l)lood  vessels  and  nerves, 
fills  in  the  space  between  these  lung  tubules. 

Air  Sacs 

The  air  sacs  are  bladderlike  structures  with  delicate  walls. 
The  sacs  are  lined  with  a  mucous  membrane  which  is  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bronchi.  They  are 
connected  with  the  bronchial  tubes  but  do  not  communicate 
with  each  other.  They  also  communicate  with  air  spaces  in 
m'-^.ny  of  the  bones  of  the  trunk  and  limbs.  Bronchial  tubes 
extending  to  the  surface  of  the  lung  communicate  directly 
Avith  these  air  cells.  The  air  sacs  continue  partly  into  the 
bones  and  line  the  Avails  of  these  spaces.  These  air  spaces, 
some  of  Avhich  are  of  considerable  size,  add  to  the  bulk  of  the 
body  of  the  bird  Avitliout  increasing  its  Aveight.  They  reach 
their  highest  state  of  development  in  the  fliers  and  SAvimmers 
and  are  less  developed  in  running  birds.  The  air  sacs  are  as 
folloAvs :     The  anterior  thoracic  air  sac,  from  Avhich  arises  the 


32  POULTRY  DISEASES 

axillary  cell  which  extends  to  the  humerus,  breastbone  and 
ribs.  This  is  the  only  air  sac  that  is  single,  the  balance  exist- 
ing in  pairs.  The  cervical  air  sacs  lie  on  the  last  cervical 
vertebra  and  extend  into  the  cervical  verte])ra.  The  infero- 
posterior  thoracic  air  sac  (ventral,  phrenic  or  diaphrag- 
matic). The  supero-posterior  thoracic  air  sacs  (dorsal  phrenic 
or  diaphragmatic  air  sacs).  These  air  sacs  or  cells  lie  be 
tween  the  lungs  and  the  abdominal  viscera  at  the  rudimen 
tary  diaphragm  and  aid  in  keeping  separate  the  thoracic  and 
abdominal  viscera.  The  abdominal  air  sacs,  which  are  by  far 
the  larger  of  all  the  air  sacs,  extend  from  the  anterior  to  near 
the  posterior  border  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  Part  of  the 
alidominal  viscera  lies  between  them.  They  extend  to  the 
pelvis  and  thigh  bones.  The  cavities  of  the  head  receive  their 
air  from  the  nasal  passages. 

Thymus  Gland 

The  thymus  gland  is  present  in  young  birds  and  is  located 
along  each  jugular  vein  in  the  neck.  The  parts  of  this  gland 
are  elongated  and  lobulated. 

Carotid  Glands 

These  are  two  round  or  oblong  glands  abundantly  supplied 
by  blood  vessels  and  lie  at  the  base  of  the  carotid  arteries. 

Adrenal  Glands 

These  small  reddish-like  bodies  lie  at  the  anterior  end  of  the 
kidneys. 

THE   CIRCULATORY   SYSTEM 

The  heart  is  located  in  the  thoracic  cavity  with  the  base 
directed  in  a  cranio-dorsal  direction.  The  apex  directed 
downward  and  backward  lies  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
fissure  formed  by  the  two  lobes  of  the  liver.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  pericardial  sac  which  is  often  attached  by  means  of  con- 
nective tissue  to  the  adjacent  air  sac.  The  structure  of  the 
heart  is  similar  to  that  of  mammals,  except  that  the  tricuspid 
valves  of  the  right  auriculo-ventricular  opening  are  rei)laced 
with  a  strong  double  nuiscular  plate  w^hich  extends  from  the 
outer  chamber  wall.  The  papillary  muscles  are  absent  in  the 
right  chamber.  The  aorta  is  given  off  from  the  left  ventricle 
and  the  pulmonary  artery  from  the  right  ventricle  as  in  mam- 
mals. The  bicuspid  valve  frequently  is  provided  with  three 
points.  The  venae  cavae  (two  anterior  and  one  posterior) 
empty  into  the  right  auricle.  The  pulmonary  veins  empty 
through  one  common  opening  into  the  left  auricle. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL 


33 


Fig. 


The  structure  of  the  l)lood  vessels  are  the  same  as  in  main- 

iiials.     The  puhiionary  artery  emerges  from  the  right  ventri- 
cle, is  short  and  divides  into  a  right  and  a  left  branch,  whicli 

go  to  the  respective  lungs. 

The   aorta   emerges  from  the  left  ventricle,   is   short   and 

gives  off  the  right  and  left  coronaries 

and    bifurcates    into    the    l)rachioce- 

phalic  dexter  (the  right  branch)  and 

the  brachiocephalic  sinister   (the  left 

branch).     The  brachiocephalic  dexter 

gives   off   the   posterior   aorta    which 

winds  round  the  right  bronchus  and 

passes  along  the  lower  portions  of  the 

vertebrae.    It  then  bifurcates  to  form 

the  right  carotid  and  right  subclavian 

arterv.     Farther  alons:  the  left   and 

right    carotids    conununicate    and    at 

this  point  the  thyroid  gland  is  located. 

The  brachiocephalic  sinister  bifurcates 

into  the  left  carotid  and  the  left  sub- 
clavian artery. 

In  some  species   of  birds  the  two 

carotids  unite  and  form  one  carotid 

called    the    carotid    primaria.      The 

carotids  give  off  branches  to  adjacent 
parts  as  they  pass  toward  the  head, 
given  off,  which  supplies  the  vertebrae.  At  the  level  of 
the  head  each  carotid  divides  into  two  branches,  one  sup- 
plying the  brain,  eyeball  and  adjacent  parts,  and  the  other 
the  remainder  of  the  cranial  structures.  The  two  sub- 
clavian arteries  each  give  off  a  sterno-clavicularis  which  sup- 
plies the  anterior  sternal  region  up  to  the  shoulder,  where 
it  divides  into  arteries  which  supply  the  breast  and  the  arm. 
The  thoracic  cranialis  is  also  given  off'  from  the  brachio- 
cephalic as  well  as  the  thoracic  caudalis,  the  latter  supplying 
the  large  breast  muscle.  At  about  this  point  there  is  also  a 
branch,  the  internal  mammary,  given  off  and  which  follows 
along  the  inner  border  of  the  sternum.  The  axillary  artery 
may  be  considered  a  continuation  of  the  brachiocephalic;  it 
supplies  the  muscles  of  the  wing  system. 

The  posterior  aorta  extends  along  the  lower  borders  of  the 
vertebra  as  far  as  the  pelvis.  It  gives  off  on  its  way  inter- 
costals,  which  pass,  one  along  the  posterior  border  of  each 
rib  and  are  disposed  of  similar  to  those  of  mammals.  It  also 
gives  off  a  celiac  axis  supplying  the  stomach,  liver  and  spleen, 
two    mesenteric    branches     (mesentericus    cranialis    and    m. 


Heart  of  Fowl  with 
(.        Its    Main    Branches. 

''  1,  cartoid  artery;  2,  sterno- 
clavicularus    artery;    3,    axil- 

'lary  artery;  4,  thoracic  cran- 
ialis artery;  5,  thoracic  cau- 
dalis; 6,  posterior  aorta;  LA, 
left  auricle;  RA,  right  auri- 
cle; LV,  left  ventricle;  RV, 
riglit  ventricle. 


A  vertebral  artery  is 


34  POULTRY  DISEASES 

caudalis)  supplying  the  mesentery  and  small  intestine. 
The  posterior  aorta  also  gives  off  ]uml)ar  arteries  and 
renals,  the  latter  supplying  the  kidneys,  also  arteries  to  the 
testes  (testicular)  in  the  male  and  ovarian  arteries  supplying 
the  ovary  in  the  female.  At  the  hind  extremities  there  is 
given  off  the  external  iliac  at  a  line  near  the  junction  of  the 
anterior  and  the  middle  thirds  of  the  kidney.  This  supplies 
the  pelvic  and  outer  muscles  of  that  region.  The  aorta  di- 
vides into  two  branches,  the  ischiatica,  and  also  sends  an 
artery  back  along  the  under  side  of  the  caudal  vertebra  (the 
sacralis  media).  The  ischial  artery,  in  company  Avith  the 
ischial  nerve,  passes  through  the  foramen  ischiaticum,  giv- 
ing off  branches  to  the  muscles  of  that  region. 

The  pulmonary  veins,  two  in  number,  originate  from  a  short 
stem  (pulmonary  artery)  which  springs  from  the  right  ven- 
tricle. These  veins  furnish  the  lungs  with  functional  blood, 
which  is  returned  to  the  heart  through  pulmonary  veins  en- 
tering the  left  auricle. 

There  are  three  venous  trunks  carrying  the  venous  ])lood 
from  the  body  and  extremities.  These  are  a  left  and  a  righc 
anterior  vena  cava  (vena  cava  cranialis)  and  a  posterior  vena 
cava  (vena  cava  caudalis).  These  three  vessels  empty  into 
the  right  auricle.  Each  anterior  vena  cava  receives  the  jugu- 
lar and  subclavian  vein  of  its  respective  side.  The  right 
jugular  is  larger  than  the  left.  They  are  located  ventrally 
to  the  skull,  where  they  anastamose  through  an  oblique  vein. 
(It  is  at  this  point  that  a  bird  is  stuck  in  slaughtering.)  At  tlie 
inferior  portion  they  receive  blood  from  the  vertebral  vessels. 
They  receive  branches  from  the  head  (the  cranial  vein),  also 
neck  and  back  vein.  The  subclavian  receives  the  blood  from 
the  veins  of  the  breast  and  wing  (sterno-clavicularis  and 
thoracic-cranialis  and  caudalis,  mammary  and  axillary  veins). 
The  subclavian  empties  into  the  anterior  vena  cava. 

The  posterior  vena  cava  is  short  and  receives  the  blood  from 
the  external  and  internal  iliacs,  hepatic,  renal  hypogastric  and 
coccygeal  veins.  It  also  receives  the  ])lood  irom  the  porta 
hepatis,  which  collects  blood  from  the  abdominal  viscera,  es- 
pecially the  intestines. 

THE  BLOOD  OF  NORMAL  FOWL 

The  blood  of  the  fowl  is  made  up  of  organized  and  unor- 
ganized elements.  The  unorganized  part  is  plasma  and  the 
organized  cells.  Tlie  cells  are  elliptical-shaped  nucleated  I'ed 
blood  cells  measuring  7x12  microns,  oval  nucleated  throm- 
bocytes, and  white  blood  cells.  The  white  blood  cells  consist 
of  mast  cells,  eosinophiles,  ])olymorphonuclear  leukocytes, 
large    mononuclear    leukocytes    and    lymphocytes.      The    red 


ANATO:^[Y  OF  THE  FOWL 


35 


blood  cells  number  about  3,500,000  per  cmm,  the  white  blood 
cells  30,000  per  cmm.,  the  thrombocytes  50,000  per  cmm. 

The  lymphocytes  constitute  fifty-four  per  cent,  the  large 
mononuclear  leukocytes  twelve  per  cent,  the  polymorphonu- 
cleai'  leukocytes  twenty-five  per  cent,  the  eosinoplnles  six  per 
cent,  and  the  mast  three  per  cent. 

LYMPH   VESSELS 

Lymph  vessels  are  numerous.  Those  of  the  hind  extremity 
empty  into  the  veins  on  the  border  between  the  tail  and  the 
pelvis.     There  are  very  few  lymph  nodes.     At  the  entrance 


^-^^ 


Fig    8      Blood  Vessels  of  the  Pelvis  and  Thigh  of  the  Fowl. 

a,  posterior  aorta;  a,  b,  external  iliac  artery;  c,  ischiadic  ^[J^/y  ;^'  ^'f  ^".^f^.'V 
f.  the  ischiadic  nerve;  g,  the  mam  artery  of.  the  thigh;  h  he  femoral  vein,  i, 
the  internal  iliac  vein;  j,  the  external  iliac  vein;  k,  the  middle  sacral  artery. 

of  the  thoracic  cavity  there  are  located  two  or  more  small 
lymph  glands. 

THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM 

The  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  surrounded  by  three  mem- 
branes as  in  mammals.  The  brain  is  divided  into  the  cere- 
brum, cerebellum  and  medulla  oblongata.  The  pons  varolii  is 
either  lacking  or  at  most  consists  of  a  few  narrow  oblique 
fibers  The  cerebral  hemispheres  are  separated  superiorly 
by  a  deep  longitudinal  fissure.     There  are  no  convolutions. 


36  POULTRY  DISEASES 

The  fissure  lateralis  is  well  marked  and  is  located  laterally 
about  the  posterior  border  of  the  anterior  third  of  the  cere- 
brum. The  epiphysis,  a  small  body,  is  located  between  the 
hemispheres  and  at  the  posterior  portion  of  the  longitudinal 
fissure.  The  olfactory  nerve  consists  of  two  conical  ])odies 
projecting  forward  from  between  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
hemispheres.  The  hypophysis  (infundibulum),  cruri  cerebri 
and  optic  chiasm  are  similar  to  those  of  mammals.  The  cor- 
pus callosum  is  lacking  or  at  most  marked  by  only  a  few- 
diagonal  fibers.  The  hippocampus  and  the  septum  lucidum  of 
mammals  are  lacking.  The  lateral  sinuses  are  well  developed. 
The  lateral  walls  are  thin  and  the  grey  matter  small  in  quan- 
tity. At  the  base  of  each  of  the  sinuses  there  is  found  an 
eminence  which  corresponds  to  the  corpus  striatum  of  mam- 
mals. At  the  postero-inferior  portion  of  the  cerebral  hemis- 
pheres there  are  rounded  eminences  called  the  sight  emi- 
nences. They  are  bounded  on  the  dorsal  side  by  the  bridge 
of  Sylvius.  Their  cavity  communicates  with  the  aqueductus 
cerebri  which  connects  the  third  and  fourth  ventricles. 

The  cranial  nerves  number  twelve,  as  in  mammals.  The 
olfactory  (first  cranial  nerve)  leaves  the  cranial  cavity 
through  a  foramen  which  represents  the  perforated  plate  of 
mammals.  It  passes  through  the  dorso-median  part  of  the  eye 
cavity,  thence  into  the  nasal  cavity,  where  its  fibers  terminate 
in  the  mucous  membrane. 

The  optic  nerve  (second  cranial)  forms  the  chiasm  at  the 
base  of  the  brain.  At  this  X  the  two  nerves  of  sight  cross. 
The  motores  oculorum  (third  cranial),  the  pathetici  (fourth 
cranial),  and  abducens  (sixth  cranial)  are  distributed  to  the 
muscles  of  the  eyeball.  The  trifacial  (fifth  cranial)  gives  off 
three  branches,  the  ophthalmicus,  the  maxillaris  and  the  man- 
dibularis.  The  branch  corresponding  to  the  lingual  of  mam- 
mals is  lacking.  The  facial  (seventh  cranial)  is  not  well  de- 
veloped. The  auditory  (eighth  cranial)  extends  into  the 
labyrinth  of  the  ear.  The  glosso-pharyngeal  (ninth  cranial) 
gives  off  a  branch  extending  to  the  tongue ;  the  remainder  of 
the  nerve  is  distributed  similar  to  that  in  mammals. 

The  vagus  (tenth  cranial)  and  the  spinal  accessory  (elev- 
enth cranial)  intertwine  themselves  in  the  proximity  of  the 
skull.  The  course  and  distribution  of  the  vagus  is  similar  to 
that  in  mammals.  The  hypo-glossal  (twelfth  cranial)  is  the 
motor  nerve  of  the  tongue. 

The  cerebellum  or  lesser  brain  is  located  in  liie  posterior 
part  of  the  cranial  eavit.y.  Numerous  oblique  fissures  mark 
the  upper  surface,  dividing  it  into  a  leaf-like  structure.     The 


ANATO:\[Y  OF  THE  FOWL 


37 


It   connects  the 


in   a   thread-like 


fourth   ventricle   is  located   under   the   cerebellum.     Lateral 
pedicles  attach  it  to  the  lower  structures.     The  medulla  ob- 
longata is  broader  than   the   spinal   cord, 
spinal  cord  with  the  brain. 

The  spinal  cord  terminates  posteriorly 
termination  without  forming^  a 
eauda  equina  as  in  mammals.  There 
are  cervical  and  lum])ar  segments 
from  which  are  given  off  nerves  for 
the  wings  and  the  hind  extremities. 
The  dorsal  segment  is  marked  by 
an  enlargement.  The  central  canal 
as  well  as  the  mode  of  entrance  and 
exit  of  the  fibers  is  the  same  as  in 
mammals. 

The  number  of  nerves  that  are 
given  off  from  the  spinal  cord  de- 
pends upon  the  number  of  vertebral 
segments.  The  spinal  nerves  are 
given  off  in  pairs ;  each  nerve  orig- 
inates from  one  dorsal  and  one 
ventral  root,  as  in  mammals ;  one 
nerve  for  each  side  of  the  body. 
The  spinal  ganglion  is  located  on 
the  dorsal  root.  Each  spinal  nerve 
divides  into  a  small  dorsal  nerve 
supplying  the  muscles  and  other 
structures  in  the  region  above  the 
level  of  the  spinal  column  and  a 
larger  ventral  branch  supplying  the 
body  walls  below  the  level.  The 
spinal  nerves  have  been  placed  in 
four  groups,  as  follows;  cervical 
(neck),  dorsal  (back),  lumbar 
floin),  and  caudal  (tail)  nerves. 
The  wings  receive  their  nerve  sup- 
ply from  the  brachial  plexus.  The 
brachial  plexus  is  made  up  of  the 
last  two  or  three  cervical  nerves 
and  the  first  one  or  two  dorsal 
nerves.  The  structures  in  the  pel- 
vic region  are  supplied  from 
branches  of  the  ventral  branches 
of  the  lumbar  nerves.     The  nerves 

of  the  shoulder  and  pelvis  are  essentially  the  same  as  in  mam 
mals.    The  nerves  of  the  skin  and  tail  are  small. 


Fig.  9.  Brain  and  Eyeball  of  thk 
FowLj    Slightly    Enlarged. 

A — 1,  the  olfactory  nerves;  2, 
the  optic  nerve;  3,  pituitary 
gland,  slightly  dislodged  poste- 
riorly; 4,  optic  lobes;  5,  medulla 
oblongata;  6,  optic  chiasm;  7, 
right  cerebrum;  8,  eyeball;  9, 
sclera;   10,  cornea. 

B — 1,  optic  nerve;  2,  its  sheath. 

C — 4,  optic  lobes;  5,  medulla 
oblongata;  7a,  right  and  7b,  left, 
cerebral  hemispheres;  8,  cerebel- 
lum; 9,  fissure  longitudinalis;  10, 
fissure  transversalis. 


38  POULTRY  DISEASES 

The  sympathetic  nerves  have  their  origin  at  tlie  cranio- 
cervical  ganglion  which  lies  at  the  base  of  the  skull.  From 
this  ganglion  fine  filaments  are  sent  to  most  of  the  cranial 
nerves  as  well  as  connecting  branches.  The  sympathetic  trunk- 
extends  along  the  cervical  vertebra,  oecup3'ing  an  ol)liqiie 
canal.  It  exchanges  filaments  with  the  cervical  nerves.  Jt 
continues  on  either  side  of  the  base  of  the  vertebra  through 
the  thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities.  Branches  from  these 
trunks  go  to  form  the  splanchnic  nerve  system  supplying  the 
visceral  organs  of  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  right  and  left 
trunks  finally  unite,  forming  the  ganglion  coccygeum. 

ORGANS  OF  SPECIAL  SENSE 
The   Eyes 

The  eyes  are  rather  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
])ody.  The  sense  of  sight  is  well  developed.  The  eyes  stand  to 
the  side  of  the  head  in  the  domestic  birds.  The  orbital  cavities 
are  separated  laterally  by  a  bony  septum  (the  septum  inter- 
orbitale),  but  are  not  completely  surrounded  by  ])one.  The 
lower  eyelid  is  the  larger  and  often  incloses  a  small  cartilagi- 
nous plate.  The  lower  lid  is  more  freely  movable  than  the  up- 
per. The  third  eyelid  (membrana  nictitans)  is  well  developed. 
A  special  muscle  draws  it  from  the  inner  canthus  of  the 
eye  over  the  ball.  There  are  no  tarsal  glands  as  in  mammals. 
The  muscles  of  the  eyelids  are  of  the  smooth  variety  and  in 
the  place  of  eyelashes  there  may  be  found  minute  feathers. 
The  gland  of  the  eyelid  lies  on  the  nasal  side  and  is  often 
larger  than  the  lacrimal  (tear)  gland.  Its  secretion  is  poured 
out  onto  the  third  eyelid.  The  tear  gland  (lacrimal)  lies  in 
the  angle  close  to  the  temple.  The  tear  gland  is  small  and 
has  one  or  more  ducts  emptying  into  the  conjunctival  sac  at 
the  temple  side  of  the  eyeball.  The  lacrimal  sac  and  lacrimal 
duct  carrying  the  tears  to  the  nasal  cavity  are  similar  as  those 
of  mammals.  The  eyeball  is  made  up  of  three  coverings.  The 
cornea  covers  the  anterior  portion  of  the  eye  and  the  sclera 
the  outer  remaining  portion  of  the  eyeball.  The  sclera  is  made 
up  of  small  overlapping  scales,  connective  tissue  and  a  car- 
tilaginous cup  extending  from  the  o]^tic  nerve  at  the  posterior 
pole  to  the  equator  of  the  globe.  The  scleral  ring  is  at  the 
anterior  border  of  this  cartilage.  The  anterior  chamber  of 
the  eye  is  large.  The  middle  layer  of  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  eyeball  is  called  the  choroid,  and  is  rich  in  pigment 
and  blood  vessels.  Tlie  retina  forms  the  inner  coat  and  is  rich 
in  a  dark  pigment.  The  ciliary  ])ody  consists  of  many  folds. 
Tlie  ciliary  muscle  consists  of  oblique  fibers  arranged  in  three 


ANATO:\IY  OF  THE  FOWL 


39 


bundles.  Xuinerous  wedge-shaped  folds  rich  in  blood  vessels 
and  containing-  pigment  are  found  at  the  point  of  entrance  of 
the  optic  nerve.  In  some  birds  these  folds  extend  forward 
and  are  attached  to  the  lens  capsule.  The  iris  forms  a  parti- 
tion between  the  anterior  and  posterior  chambers  and  is  per- 
forated in  the  center  by  a  round  hole,  the  pupillary  opening. 
It  contains  a  dark  pigment  on  the  posterior  or  lens  side.  This 
color  or  pigment  gives  the  color  to  the  eye.  The  yellow  color- 
ing of  the  eye  is  caused  by  the  fat  pigment,  lipochrome.  The 
widening  and  especially  the  intense  narrowing  of  the  pupd 
is  in  part  due  to  oblique  muscles  (sphincter  pupillare).  The 
ciliary  muscles  are  quite  active.  The  retina  does  not  contain 
blood  vessels  and  the  structure  is  similar  to  that  of  mammals. 
The  crystalline  lens  in  birds  is  rather  flat- 
tened on  the  anterior  .side  except  in  birds  of 
nocturnal  habits,  in  Avhich  it  is  very  convex. 
It  differs  from  the  lens  of  mammals  in  that 
the  lens  epithelium  develops  into  fibers  in 
the  equatorial  portion  and  are  arranged  al- 
most perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  eye- 
ball, These  are  located  near  the  ring  pads. 
The  portion  for  the  passage  of  light  is  rela- 
tively small. 


Fig.    10.   Se  c  T  1  o  n 

Through  the  Eye 

OF   A   Hen. 

1,  cornea;  2,  an- 
terior chamber;  3. 
posterior      chamber; 

4,  vitreous  chamber; 

5,  iris;  6,  retina;  7, 
choroid  coat;  8,  op- 
tic nerve;  9,  sclero- 
tic coat;  10,  scleral 
ring;  11,  lens;  12, 
pectin;  13,  corpus 
ciliaris. 


The   Organs  of  Hearing 

The  outer  ear  is  lacking.  A  skin  fold  sur- 
rounds the  external  opening  of  the  ear  in 
chickens  and  is  called  the  ear  lobe,  while  in 
other  birds  the  outer  ear  opening  may  be 
surrounded  by  peculiarly  formed  feathers. 
The  outer  canal  is  short  and  contains  an  ear 
gland.  This  canal  is  lined  with  the  contin- 
uation of  the  skin  and  connects  with  the 
ear  drum.  The  tympanic  membrane  is  convex  externally  and 
is  stretched  in  a  bony  ring.  The  ear  drum  forms  an  irregular 
cavity  which  is  in  relation  to  the  air  cavities  of  the  skull  and 
with  the  bony  and  cartilaginous  ear  trumpet  in  connection 
with  the  pharyngeal  cavity.  The  columella  only  is  present, 
which  may  be  compared  to  the  stirrup  of  mammals.  The  inner 
ear  consists  of  a  bony  labyrinth  surrounded  by  a  spongy  bone 
substance.  In  it  is  distinguished  the  vestibule,  the  three  half- 
circled  canals  and  the  cochlea.  The  vestibule  is  a  small  irreg- 
ular cavity  which  communicates  with  the  cochlea  and  through 
the  fenestra  vestibularis  with  the  drum  cavity.  The  endo- 
lymph  of  the  vesti])ule  contains  microscopic  crystals  of  cal- 
cium carbonate.    The  semicircular  canals  are  relatively  larger 


40  POULTRY  DISEASES 

and  thicker  walled  than  in  mammals.  The  ampulla  are  the 
upper  and  back  canals  with  bony  walls.  The  cochlea  is  a 
tul)e  thinly  covered  at  the  blind  end  and  contains  the  cuticular 
cochlea.  At  its  point  it  is  broadened  for  the  formation  of  the 
lagena.  The  cavity  of  the  cochlea  is  divided  by  the  spiral 
walls,  the  scala  vestibuli  and  the  scala  tympani.  These  walls 
are  visible  in  the  vestibulum  so  that  they  may  be 
seen  at  the  beginning  of  the  cochlea. 

Organs  of  Smell 

The  olfactory  nerve,  after  merging  from  the 
cranium  through  the  olfactory  foramen  passes 
down  and  spreads  out,  terminating  in  filaments 
on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  nasal  passage. 

Organs  of  Taste 

Fig.   11.  CocH- 

^Tnth^f^I'  ^^^®  tongue  is  considered  the  taste  organ.     In 

Hen  most  birds  the  thick  stratified  squamous  epithel- 

2  I'emidJcuiar  ^^^  dorsal  surfacc  is  little  adapted  for  taste  per- 
canais;  3,  am-  ccptiou.  The  ninth  ucrvc  is  the  nerve  of  taste. 
CO Jhfea;  5,'  The  lingiial  branch  of  the  trigeminus  is  missing. 
fenestra  ^vesu-  Filamcuts  of  the  first  and  second  branches  of  the 
tiestra  'cochlea-  trifacial,  wliicli  is  broadened  in  the  mucous  mem- 
"^'  brane  of  the  hard  palate,  furnish  taste  filaments 

to  that  part.    Taste  buds  are  then  found  on  both 
the  tongue  and  hard  palate. 

Organs  of  Touch 

The  organs  of  touch  are  the  skin  and  feathers.  The  skin 
consists  of  an  epidermis  and  dermis.  The  skin  contains  no 
sweat  glands.  In  fowls  and  many  other  birds  there  is  pro- 
vided a  tail  (rump)  gland.  This  is  a  tubular  gland  which 
secretes  an  oily  substance  that  is  carried  to  the  surface 
through  a  common  duct.  The  bird,  by  obtaining  some  of  this 
oil  substance  on  its  beak,  oils  the  feathers.  This  oil  preserves 
the  feathers  from  becoming  dry  and  brittle  and  prevents  loss 
from  w^eather  conditions.  In  a  few  birds  special  touch  and 
taste  perception  is  provided  by  the  edges  and  point  of  the 
beak.  The  dermis  (corium)  is  well  developed  and  furnishes 
ample  muscular  means  for  the  raising  and  lowering  of  the 
feathers.  The  corium  is  thin.  Papillary  bodies  are  present 
only  in  a  few  areas,  as  the  region  of  the  eyes  and  on  the  toes. 
Thickened  epithelial  elevations  are  noted  on  the  ventral  por- 
tion of  the  toes,  where  there  is  great  wear  as  a  result  of  contact 
with  the  ground. 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL  41 

The  muscles  of  the  skin  are  well  developed  in  certain  parts 
of  the  body.  They  are  divided  into  primary  and  secondary 
muscles.  The  secondary  muscles  are  branches  of  the  skeletal 
muscles.  On  the  feathered  parts  of  the  skin  the  epidermis  is 
thin,  rather  dry  on  the  surface  and  is  provided  with  continu- 
ous scale-like  layers.  The  stratum  corneum  is  thick  on  the 
horny  sheath  of  the  beak,  on  the  dorsal  surfaces  of  the  toes,  the 
spurs  of  the  cock,  and  the  scaly  plates  of  the  shanks.  The 
feathers  covering  the  surface  of  the  body  represent  a  special 
epidermal  formation,  analogous  to  the  hair  of  animals.  Feath- 
ers occur  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  body  except  on  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  under  surface,  and  the  neck,  shanks  and 
toes.  Some  breeds  are  provided  with  a  row  on  the  outer  edge 
of  the  shanks  and  outer  toe.  The  corium  is  not  very  rich  in 
blood  vessels.  It  forms  a  thick  net-like  structure  in  the  comb, 
gills  and  similar  appendages  of  chickens  and  turkeys.  The 
only  gland  that  is  present  is  the  tail  (rump)  gland  (glandula 
uropygii).  The  gland  is  round  or  oval  and  in  fowls  the  size 
of  a  pea.  In  geese  it  is  the  size  of  a  hazelnut.  A  median 
septum  divides  the  gland  into  two  halves ;  at  times  there  may 
be  found  two  ducts  leading  from  this  gland,  but  there  is 
usually  only  one.  The  gland  is  largest  in  swimming  birds. 
The  gland  is  a  tubular  one  and  is  provided  with  a  sinus  into 
which  the  cells  pour  their  secretion.  The  corium  often  con- 
tains mucous  sacs. 

The  feathers  develop  from  a  papillary  structure  of  the 
corium.  This  corresponds  to  the  hair  papilla  of  mammals. 
The  feather  is  divided  into  a  quill,  a  midrib  or  shaft,  primary 
and  secondary  barbs.  The  free  end  of  the  quill  occupies  the 
papilla  of  the  skin  and  is  roundish,  rather  three-sided  in 
shape.  It  is  hollow,  with  thin  dividing  septa.  It  has  a  cup- 
shaped  depression  at  the  free  end  which  surrounds  the  feather 
papilla  and  includes  a  horny  mass.  The  shaft  is  provided  with 
four  sides  and  four  edges  and  is  solid.  It  contains  a  white 
spong}^  substance.  From  the  sides  of  the  shaft  the  primary 
barbs  extend  out,  and  in  most  breeds  on  either  border  of  these 
primary  barbs  Ave  find  secondary  barbs  or  barbules  which 
dovetail  into  the  secondary  barbs  or  barbules  of  the  adjacent 
barb.  Tliese  form  the  web  of  the  feather.  There  are  no  bar- 
bules in  the  fluffy  portion  of  the  feather  nor  in  feathers  of  the 
silky  breeds. 

The  feather  coat  is  changed  twice  a  year,  either  in  late 
summer  or  fall,  and  in  spring  or  early  summer.  A  chick 
molts  four  times  before  growing  its  adult  feathers. 


42  POULTRY  DISEASES 

THE  REPRODUCTIVE  ORGANS  OF  THE  HEN 

The  physiological  basis  of  reproduction  of  the  female  fowl 
is  the  left  ovar}-  and  left  oviduct.  The  right  ovary  and  ovi- 
duct are  absent,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  degenerate  during 
ein])ryonic  life. 

The  ovary  is  located  in  the  sul)luiiil)ar  region  of  the  ab- 
dominal cavity  and  to  the  right  of  the  median  line  and  touch- 
ing the  left  adrenal  gland  and  just  anterior  to  and  below  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  kidney.  It  is  located  superior  to  the 
liver  and  at  the  juncture  of  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  cavi- 
ties.   It  appears  as  a  cluster  of  spheres  or  globe-shaped  bodies 


Fig.  12.     The  Pelvic  Organs  of  a  Pullet. 
a,    ovary;    b,   oviduct;    c,   infundibuliform   portion    or   origin    of   the   oviduct;   d, 
rectum;   e,   cloaca  into  which  the  oviduct  empties;  f,  adrenal  gland;  g,  kidney;  h, 
ureter  carrying  the  secretion  of  the  kidney  to  the   cloaca;    i,  lung. 

which  in  tlic  adult  hen  immhL'r  from  DOO  to  3,500.  Fig.  12^ 
letter  a,  represents  an  ovary  of  an  adult  White  "Wyandotte 
pullet  that  has  never  functionated.  The  undeveloped  ova  are 
noted  in  a  grape-like  mass.  Fig.  13,  letter  a,  represents  an 
active  ovary  from  a  three-pound  White  Leghorn  bantam  hen. 
This  hen  was  developing  one  egg  a  day,  having  laid  an  egg 
only  three  hours  before  being  killed:  b  represents  the  yolk 
of  an  ovum  which  would  probably  have  been  fully  developed 
in  less  than  twenty-four  hours.  The  ovum  is  surrounded  by 
a  thin  membrane  or  capsule  very  vascular,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
13.  This  capsule  is  continued  back  onto  the  stalk  which  at- 
taches it  to  the  central  fibrous  supporting  portion  of  the 
ovary.  This  portion  is  attached  to  the  structures  of  the  back. 
When  the  yolk  portion  of  the  ovum  is  fully  developed  the  cap- 


ANATOMY  OF  THE  FOWL 


43 


sule  ruptures  and  the  yolk  falls  into  an  expanded  portion  of 
the  oviduct  at  c,  Fig.  13.  This  portion  of  the  duct  is  very 
thin  and  gradually  merges  into  a  thicker  wall,  in  which  i)or- 
tion  the  mucous  membrane  is  thrown  into  folds.  The  yolk  is 
surrounded  by  a  delicate  membrane,  the  vitelline  membrane, 
which  holds  the  mass  intact,  thus  giving  it  the  spherical  ap 
pearance. 

After  the  stigmen  ruptures  and  the  yolk  is  discharged  into 


Fig.  13.  Pelvic  Organs  of  a  Hen. 
a,  the  ovary;  b,  ovum  fully  developed;  c,  infundibulifomi  portion  of  the  oviduct; 
d,  stigma  or"  point  of  rupture  of  follicle;  e,  a  degenerated  ovum;  f,  portion  in 
which  shell  is  formed;  g,  a  portion  of  the  oviduct  torn  from  its  ligaments  and  laid 
over  to  one  side:  h,  showing  th.e  villus-like  mucous  membrane;  i,  albuminous 
portion  of  newly  formed  egg;   j,  the  yolk  of  the  same;   k,  rectum;    1,   cloaca. 

the  Q^^  canal  there  remains  a  cup-shaped  cavity  attached  to 
the  ovary  and  which  is  called  the  calyx,  which  gradually  dis- 
appears. 

One  by  one  the  yolks  are  developed  to  full  size  or  to  ma- 
tui'ity  from  the  mass  of  undeveloped  ova  of  the  ovary  as  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  12,  letter  a.  Fig.  13,  letter  1),  shows  an  ovum  or 
yolk  reaching  full  development,  and  d  shows  a  non-vascular 


44  POULTRY  DISEASES 

line  the  stigma  where  the  follicular  wall  is  becoming  tliin 
preparatory  to  discharging  the  yolk  into  the  oviduct.  The 
discharge  of  the  yolk  into  the  oviduct  is  sometimes  spoken  of 
as  ovulation. 

The  yolk  has  its  origin  in  a  minute  sphere  containing  a  nu- 
cleus, as  illustrated  by  a,  Fig.  14.  This  nucleus  marks  the 
point  of  the  development  of  the  embryo  chick  after  fertiliza- 
tion. It  is  noted  to  be  located  in  the  central  portion.  When 
the  cell  begins  the  development  of  the  yolk  there  is  noted 
first  a  deposit  of  fine  granules  of  yolk  around  the  central  nu- 
cleus. These  granules  of  yolk  material  gradually  extend  to- 
wards the  cell  Avail.  This  deposit  is  known  as  the  latebra  or 
the  flask-shaped  mass  of  white  yolk  forming  thin  layers  of 
yellow  yolk. 

Later,  when  the  ovum  has  reached  a  size  of  about  0.66  milli- 
meter in  diameter,  the  nucleus  occupies  a  position  just  under 
the  vitelline  membrane  and  at  the  end  of  the  flask-shaped  mass, 
as  illustrated  in  a,  Fig.  14. 

Later  there  are  formed  several  layers  of  yellow  yolk  depos- 
ited around  the  central  mass  of  white  yolk,  apparently  brought 
about  through  the  secretion  of  the  peripheral  layer  of  proto- 
plasm. 

The  spermatozoa,  a,  Fig.  18,  make  their  way  by  aid  of  their 
terminal  flagella  or  tails  through  the  oviduct  and  fertilization 
takes  place  as  soon  as  the  yolk  has  entered  the  oviduct.  Only 
one  spermatozoon  is  utilized  in  this  fertilization  process.  The 
balance  are  repelled  from  the  cell. 

After  the  yolk  passes  into  the  oviduct  albumen  is  formed 
around  it  in  the  second  or  upper  portion  by  specialized  col- 
umnar epithelial  cells. 

The  contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  oviduct  forces  the 
contents  along.  AVhen  the  albumen  formation  is  completed 
the  newly  forming  q^^  passes  into  the  isthmus  or  third  portion 
where  through  the  activity  of  other  specialized  cells  a  mem- 
brane is  formed  around  the  mass. 

In  the  lower  portion,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  13,  letter  /,  the 
calcium  layer  or  shell  is  formed  to  protect  the  delicate  mass 
within  from  external  violence.     Here  the  tint  or  color  is  pro 
duced  in  shells  other  than  white. 

The  formation  of  the  allnimen  around  the  yolk  in  the  up- 
per portion  of  the  oviduct  is  probably  accomplished  in  about 
three  hours.  The  membrane  surrounding  tlie  Q^g,  mass  is 
formed  in  the  isthmus  in  a])out  the  same  length  of  time.  The 
formation  of  the  shell  and  the  expulsion  of  the  egg  will  be 
accomplished  in  from  twelve  to  eighteen  hours. 


ANATO:\IY  OF  THE  FOWL 


45 


The  yolk  is  of  less  specific  gravity  than  the  albumen,  hence 
it  gradually  rises  Avith  the  blastoderm  uppermost ;  if  allowed  to 
remain,  the  blastoderm  may  become  adherent  to  the  egg  mem- 
brane and  cause  death  of  the  embryo,  hence  the  necessity  of 
turning-  the  egg  kept  for  hatching  and  during  the  first  eight- 
een days  of  iiiciibation. 

There  is  just  as  high  a  production  of  eggs  from  an  indi- 


'  •''*!B:*)a.>^-ffK- 


Fig.   14.     Section  of  Ovary  of  the  Hen. 
a,   undeveloped    ova   showing-  their   nuclei;    b,    one   in   which    deposit   of   volk   has 
begun;  c,  a  section  through  the  center- showing  the  germinal  vesicle. 


vidual  without  the  service  of  a  male  as  with  such  service. 
In  other  words,  the  spermatozoa  have  no  influence  on  the  rate 
and  number  of  the  development  of  eggs. 

The  egg  as  laid  consists  of  an  outer  shell  coating  giving  it  a 
gloss  or  so-called  bloom,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  pro- 


46 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


tective  coat.  The  shell  consists  largely  of  lime  salts.  An  outer 
shell  membrane  is  located  just  inside  the  shell  and  an  inner 
membrane  dips  across  at  the  large  end  of  the  egg,  forming 
the  air  cell.  This  membrane  consists  of  a  fibrous  structure, 
the  fibers  of  which  extend  in  all  directions.  The  air  chamber 
becomes  larger  as  incubation  goes  on,  in  order  to  meet  the 
respiratory  needs  of  the  emljryo  or  as  we  may  say  the  fetus, 
the  head  being  almost  invariably  developed  in  that  end  if  the 
egg  lies  on  its  side.  The  albumen  and  a  portion  of  the  yolk 
become  appropriated  for  the  formation  of  the  embryo  chick. 

Immediatel}^  surrounding  the  yolk  there  is  a  dense  layer  of 
albumen  and  outside  of  this  a  less  dense  layer. 

In  the  allium  en  at  either  pole  of  the  yolk  is  a  long  mass  of 
dense  and  partially  twisted  albumen  apparently  adherent  to 
the  vitelline  mem])rane  or  volk  sac,  and  to  the  inner  shell 
membrane  by  the  other  end.     B}^  some  this  has  been  regarded 

as    a    stay,     so     to 


h 


fi    Q 


\ 


speak,  which  to  a 
certain  extent  pre- 
^^ents  violence  to  the 
delicate  structures 
within  the  central 
part  of  the  egg. 

The  albuminous 
portion  {egg  white) 
consists  of  86.2  per 
cent  Avater,  13  per 
cent  protein,  0.2 
per  cent  fat  and  O.H 
per  cent  ash  and 
possesses  a  caloric 
value  of  1,608.  The 
egg  yolk  consists  of 
16.1  per  cent  pro- 
tein, 33.3  per  cent 
fat,  1.1  per  cent 
ash  and  49.5  per 
cent  water,  with  a 
caloric  value  of  265. 
The  hen  egg  corresponds  to  the  oxuin  of  higher  animal  life 
where  after  fertilization  of  the  ovum  development  of  the  fetus 
takes  place  normally  in  the  uterus  of  the  mother.  The  ovum  of 
mammals  is  made  up  of  a  male  and  a  female  pronucleus  as  in 
the  hen  egg  and  protoplasm  and  deuto])lasm,  the  deutoplasm 
being  nutriment  for  the  em])ryo  till  it  has  developed  suffi- 
ciently to   draw   on  the   nutriments   of  the   blood   from   th3 


Fig.    is.     Diagrammatic   Structure  of  the  Egg. 

a,  the  blastoderm;  b,  the  shell;  c,  the  outer  shell 
membrane;  d,  the  inner  shell  membrane;  e,  the  air 
cell  at  the  large  end;  f,  the  all)umen;  g,  the  chalaza; 
h,  the  dark  yolk;  i,  the  white  yolk;  j.  the  vitelline 
membrane;  k,  the  flask-like  white  yolk;  1,  a  fluid 
all)uminous  layer  wliich  immediately  surrounds  the 
yolk. 


ANATOMY  OF  TllK  FOWL  47 

mother's  iitorus.  Jii  tlie  case  of  the  bird  there  is  no  uterus  in 
the  sense  that  we  speak  of  it  in  higher  animal  life,  henee  no 
uterine  plaeenta,  because  there  is  no  fetus  developed  in  tlie 
l)ird,  but  to  take  its  place  there  is  stored  up  an  abundance 
of  food,  taking  the  place  of  the  deutoi)lasm  and  maternal  nu- 
trients of  higher  animal  life.  Nature  has  been  elaborate  in 
storing  up  food  for  the  embryo  and  the  baby  chick,  for  the 
yolk  is  apparently  almost  wholly  intended  to  be  drawn  upon 
the  first  seventy-two  hours  of  the  baby  chick's  life  or  until  it 
is  strong  enough  to  follow  the  mother  and  till  hatching  of  the 
brood  is  over.  An  examination  of  a  newly  hatched  bal)y 
chick  will  show  this  yolk  in  the  abdominal  cavity  and  nuich 
still  unabsorbed. 

The  active  or  functionating  oviduct  is  a  rather  large,  tortu- 
ous tube  varying  in  size  and  length,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  hen,  and  filling  a  large  part  of  the  left  half  of  the  abdom- 
inal cavity  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  13.  In  a  single  comb  Rhode 
Island  Red  pullet  weighing  six  pounds  and  producing  an  egg 
a  day,  the  oviduct  was  found  to  measure  twenty  inches  in 
length.  In  a  White  Wyandotte  pullet  weighing  five  pounds, 
and  whose  ovary  and  oviduct  had  not  yet  become  active,  the 
oviduct  measured  but  five  inches.    See  Fig.  12,  letter  h. 

It  can  readily  be  seen  that  in  a  very  fat  hen  with  the  intes- 
tines, liver  and  other  organs  and  a  functionating  ovary  and 
oviduct,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  13,  the  abdominal  cavity  would 
be  crowded.  When  this  crowded  condition  arises  there  may 
be  a  partial  or  complete  cessation  of  the  function  of  the  ovary 
and  oviduct,  hence  the  hen  ceases  to  lay. 

The  oviduct  originates  at  the  anterior  portion  of  the  ab- 
dominal cavity.  Fig.  12,  letter  c,  by  an  expansion  at  the  ovary 
in  such  a  way  as  to  receive  the  yolk  when  it  is  discharged  from 
the  yolk  sac  of  the  ovary.  This  portion  is  anatomically  known 
as  the  funnel,  ostium  abdominale  or  infundibulum.  The  ovi- 
duct may  be  divided  into  five  portions,  as  follows:  (1)  The 
principal  albumen  secreting  portion,  (2)  a  more  constricted 
portion,  (3)  the  isthmus,  (4)  the  shell  gland  portion,  some- 
times referred  to  as  the  uterus,  and  (5)  the  outer  passage  by 
some  known  as  the  vagina.  The  vaginal  or  outer  portion  of 
the  oviduct  is  guarded  ))y  a  rather  well-developed  sphincter 
muscle.  The  oviduct  is  attached  to  the  surrounding  struc- 
lui'es    by    dorsal    and    ventral    ligaments. 

The  oviduct  consists  of  three  main  coats,  namely:  an  ex- 
ternal serous,  a  middle  nniscular  being  made  up  of  an  outer 
lougitudinal  and  an  inner  circular  layer,  and  an  internal 
mucous  coat  which  is  thrown  into  folds  both  primary  and  sec- 


48  POULTRY  DISEASES 

ondary  and  provided  with  columnar  epithelial  cells.  The  ovi- 
duct has  great  power  of  dilatation,  but  tears  easily  if  the  trac- 
tion is  too  much  in  one  direction.  A  rupture  of  the  oviduct 
sometimes  occurs. 

THE  MALE  REPRODUCTIVE  ORGANS 

The  generative  organs  of  the  male  fowl  are  the  testes  and 
vas  deferens  or  seminal  tubules. 

In  the  cockerel,  before  sexual  maturity,  which  is  denoted 
in  physical  appearance  by  the  male  bird  crowing,  the  testicles, 
two  in  number,  are  very  small,  measuring  only  about  one-half 
inch  long  and  scarcely   one-fourth  inch  in  diameter.     They 


Fig.  16.     Generative  Org.\ns  of  a  Cockerel. 

a,  the  testicles;  b,  the  rectum  cut  and  turned  back;  c,  the  cloaca  into  which 
the  duct  terminates;  d,  the  vas  deferens;  e,  the  kidneys;  f,  the  adrenal 
gland;  g,  the  lungs. 

resemble,  in  shape,  a  navy  bean  and  are  j^ellowish-white  in 
color.  Fig,  16  illustrates  the  testes  at  a,  and  at  d  may  be 
seen  the  undeveloped  vas  deferens  or  seminal  tubules. 

As  the  male  bird  becomes  sexually  active  the  testicles  de- 
velop to  enormous  size,  measuring  two  inches  in  length  and 
seven-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  as  illustrated  in  Pig.  17. 
which  is  from  a  single  comb  AVhite  Leghorn  cock  one  year 
old. 

The  testis  is  made  up  of  a  globus  major  and  glol)us  minor,  or 
epididymis,  the  latter  rather  rudimentary.  The  gh)bus  major 
forms  the  major  portion  of  the  testicle.  Tlie  epididymis  is 
short  and  from  it  originates  the  vas  deferens  as  shown  in 
Fig.  17,  letter  d. 

The  testicular  tissue  is  made  up  of  fine  intertwined  sperm 


ANATOAIV  OF  TTIE  FOWL 


49 


canals,  united  ))y  a  web  of  bands.  In  chiekens  the  canals  are 
broad.  They  are  the  secreting  tuliules  in  which  are  formed 
the  spermatozoa  (see  Fig.  16),  and  a  (luantity  of  fluid  in  which 
the  spermatozoa  are  transported  and  an  internal  secretion. 

The  left  testis  is  usually  larger  than  the  right.     They  in- 
crease in  size  during  rutting  (breeding  season). 

The  testicles  are  surrounded  by  a  thin  and  delicate  mem- 
brane, which  is  very  vascular,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  17,  letter  a. 


Fig.  17.     Pelvic  Cavity  of  a  Cock,  Showixg  the  Fully  Developed  axd  Active 

Testicles. 

a,    tlie   testicles;    b,    the    rectum    cut   and   turned   back;    c,    the    cloaca;   d,    the   vas 
deferens;   e,  the  kidneys;   f,  the  lungs. 


The  testicles  are  located  just  back  of  the  lungs  in  the  region 
of  the  adrenal  gland  and  below  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
kidney  and  in  front  of  the  three  last  ril)s.  They  are  attached 
by  means  of  loose  connective  tissue  to  tlie  abdominal  aorta, 
veins  and  bodies  of  the  vertebrae. 

The  tube  carrying  the  fluid  or  semen  from  the  testis  is 
called  the  vas  deferens  and  originates  in  the  epididymis,  which 
is  verv  short  and  is  located  on  the  upper  and  inner  surface 
of  the  testicle  and  extends  backward  attached  by  connective 
tissue  to  the  roof  of  the  lumbo-])elvic  cavity  and  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  kidney.  This  tube  at  first  small  gradually  becomes 
larger  and  is  tortuous  as  it  reaches  the  cloaca.  It  empties 
its  contents  at  the  summit  of  a  small  eminence  in  the  cloacal 
mucous  membrane. 


50 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


That  an  internal  .secretion  is  mannfaetured  in  the  testicles 
is  proved  by  the  physical  changes  which  take  i)lace  after  the 
testicles  are  removed.  The  bird  loses  his  vim,  energy  and 
mascnline  appearance  and  ambitions  and  becomes  sluggish, 
lays  on  fat  and  is  hated  by  both  males  and  females  alike.  It 
often  shows  some  femininity  in  that  it  will  take  a  brood  of 
chicks  and  mother  them.  The  meat  becomes  more  tender  and 
more  palatable.  In  short,  there  is  the  same  change  that  is 
noted  in  other  animals  that  have  been  castrated. 

THE  URINARY  SECRETION 

The  kidneys  are  elongated  and  lo})ulated,  measuring  2.5 
inches  long  in  the  fowl  of  average  size  and  occupying  irregular 


Fk;.    18.     Spermatozoa  from   a   Smear  trom  Fluid  of 

THE  \'as  Deferens  of  a  S.  C.  W.  Leghorn  Cock. 
a,   the  spermatozoa;  b,  the  head;  c,  the  tail. 


cavities  in  the  lumbo-pelvic  roof.  There  are  three  distin<'t 
lobes,  and  each  lobe  is  made  up  of  lobules.  The  uriniferous 
tubules  terminate  on  the  surface  of  the  kidney,  forming  the 
uretei'.  Tlie  ureter  extends  along  the  sin'Tace  of  tlie  kidney, 
receiving  thi;  contents  from  the  various  tiil)uh's  which  empty 
into  it.  The  ureter  (Miii)ti('s  inio  the  cloaca.  The  kidney  tissue 
is  very  soft  and  of  a  reddish-ljrown  color. 

The  urinary  secretion  is  very  thick  and  at  times  pasty  or 
creamy  in  consistency,  filling  the  ureter  lumen.    The  salts  arc 


ANATO:\rY  OF  THE  FOAVL  51 

abundant.  In  many  eases  the  material  solidifies  on  exposure  to 
the  air  in  less  than  one  minute.  The  salts  dry  on  the  outer 
surface  of  the  droppings  and  appear  as  white,  chalky  material. 
The  urinary  secretion  has  been  found  by  investigation  car- 
ried on  in  this  laboratory  to  be  acid  to  litmus  in  reaction. 


N 


SKCTIOX  II 

SANITATION 

AYhere  any  considera])le  nuiiil)er  of  birds  are  brought  to- 
gether on  limited  grounds,  disease  is  certain  to  appear  among 
them  sooner  or  later.  The  greater  the  number  of  birds  kept 
on  any  given  area,  other  things  l)eing  equal,  the  sooner  disease 
will  appear,  the  more  rapidly  will  it  spread,  and  the  greater 
will  be  the  loss  from  it. 

All  intelligently  directed  measures  to  prevent  or  delay  the 
appearance  of  disease  in  a  flock,  all  sane  measures  to  limit  its 
spread  and  encompass  its  eradication,  constitute  sanitation. 
^Measures,  the  purpose  of  which  are  to  cure  the  sick  birds  or 
relieve  their  suffering,  come  under  the  head  of  therapeutics 
or  therapy. 

On  farms  of  considerable  size,  where  attention  is  given 
chiefly  to  general  crops,  and  but  few  fowls  are  kept  on  a 
practically  unlimited  range,  the  loss  from  disease  may  be 
small,  where  indifferent  or  even  bad  sanitation  prevails ;  but 
in  intensive  poultry  plants,  where  the  numlier  of  birds  is  large 
for  the  size  of  the  range,  there  can  be  no  continued  exemption 
from  devastating  epiornithics,  if  reasonable  sanitation  is  not 
enforced.  Any  attempt  to  operate  such  a  plant  in  insanitary 
buildings  and  yards,  or  under  conditions  that  do  not  permit 
of  sanitation,  while  it  may  succeed  for  a  time,  will  result  in 
loss  oftener  than  otherwise,  and,  in  the  end,  must  inevitably 
fail. 

SITE  FOR  POULTRY  PLANT 

A  rolling,  or  even  steep,  plot  of  ground  is  desirable  for  the 
location  of  the  poultry  houses  and  runs  for  the  fowls.  Good 
drainage  is  a  necessary  requirement,  and  must  be  provided 
for  artificially  if  the  location  is  such  that  natural  drainage  is 
not  perfect. 

The  surface  of  the  poultry  yard  nuist  be  free  from  un- 
evenness,  so  that  water  will  not  colh^ct  in  small  pools. 

The  poultry  runs  an<l  l)uildings  should  have  a  free  ex- 
posure to  sunlight,  though  some  shade  must  be  provided  for 
protection  during  excessively  hot  sununer  days. 

The  soil  should  contain  a  goodly  proportion  of  sand.  It  is 
very  desiral)le  that  it  be  of  such  a  nature  that  the  runs  will 
not  readily  become  nuiddy  dui'ing  wet  weatlier,  and  such  that 


54  POULTRY  DISEASES 

they  will  dry  very  quickly  after  rains.  The  runs  should  he 
thoroug:hly  grassed  over,  or  if  on  limited  area  the  double 
yardage  system  should  he  used  and  one  yard  sowed  in  rape 
or  oats  while  the  other  is  Ix'ing  used. 

BUILDINGS  AND   RUNS 

The  runs  to  afford  permanent  grass  must  have  an  area  of 
150  square  feet  to  each  hen.  A  smaller  area  of  Bermuda  grass 
will  do  for  a  hen.  Fowls  must  be  provided  with  green  feed 
the  year  round,  and  they  must  have  animal  protein  and  ex- 
ercise. Birds  should  be  kept  in  small  units  of  about  fifty  birds 
to  the  unit,  and  the  house  should  be  a  portable  style,  and  thus 
the  birds  in  small  fiocks  may  be  scattered  over  the  farm.  It 
is  found  that  fruit  trees  of  all  kinds  are  protected  by  fowls 
running  in  the  orchards.  The  fowls  devour  the  insects  and 
worms  that  are  harmful  to  the  trees  and  at  the  same  time 
furnish  themselves  Avitli  the  needed  animal  protein.  The  same 
is  true  of  smaller  fruits  as  grapes,  among  which  shrubs  the 
birds  may  be  kept  at  all  seasons  except  while  the  fruit  is 
ripening.  Fowls  may  be  allowed  to  run  in  cotton  fields,  corn 
fields,  and  in  sugar  beet  fields — in  fact,  in  any  crop  except  the 
smaller  grains  like  wheat,  rye  and  oats.  Fowls  rid  stubble 
fields  such  as  wheat  and  oats  after  the  crops  have  been  re- 
moved, of  bugs  and  other  insects,  and  thus  make  more  favor- 
able the  growing  of  another  crop  the  succeeding  j^ear.  Often 
the  youngsters  on  range  can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  housing 
them  in  portable  poultry  houses.  These  houses  have  under 
them  sled  runners  and  are  easily  moved  from  place  to  place. 
Grasshoppers  can  be  gotten  rid  of  by  this  means.  At  the  same 
time  the  fowls  are  provided  with  feed  and  make  satisfactory 
growth  and  thus  profit.  The  slogan,  ''fence  the  garden  and 
not  the  fowls,"  should  be  carried  out. 

The  house  should  have  an  open  front.  This  open  space 
should  be  about  thirty  inches  wide  and  nearly  as  long  as  the 
house.  In  cold  winter  there  should  be  provided  a  drop  curtain 
made  of  burlap  or  ducking  to  keep  out  much  of  the  cold,  but 
at  the  same  time  always  insure  proper  ventilation.  The 
house  should  face  the  south,  so  that  the  sun  can  gain  access 
to  the  interior  at  all  times.  The  ground  should  slope  from 
the  house  so  that  water  does  not  accumulate  around  the  build- 
ing. The  floor  may  be  made  of  dirt,  cinders,  cement  or  boards. 
If  of  cement,  there  is  needed  ten  inches  of  cinders  or  crushed 
rock  as  a  base  and  two  to  four  inches  of  concrete  on  top  of  this. 
The  floor  should  be  at  least  six  inches  al)ove  the  surrounding 
ground.     A  cement  floor  constructed  in  tliis  inanner  will  re- 


SAxXITATION  55 

main  dry  on  account  of  the  good  underdrainage.  If  this  uii- 
derdrainage  is  not  provided,  the  Hoor  at  certain  times  will  be 
wet  and  many  of  the  l)irds  will  become  sick.  Colds  and  roup 
are  among  the  ills  such  conditions  favor. 

The  modern  i)Oultry  house  e(iuipment  includes  a  removable 
dropping  board  built  horizontally  and  about  thirty  inches 
above  the  floor.  The  perch  poles  are  located  horizontally  and 
about  fourteen  inches  apart,  and  about  ten  or  twelve  inches 
above  the  dropping  boards.  At  one  end  is  built  a  coop  in 
which  to  break  up  the  broody  hens,  and  the  nests  are  made 
about  fourteen  inches  square  and  placed  just  under  the  outer 
edge  of  the  dropping  boards  or  at  one  end  and,  like  the  other 
equipment,  are  movable.  By  this  arrangement  the  entire  Hoor 
is  available  for  scratch  material  such  as  straw,  stover  or 
leaves,  and  in  this  scratch  material  the  grain  ration  is  thrown. 
If  ventilation  is  needed  in  the  back  during  the  hot  nights  of 
summer  it  is  provided  high  up  so  that  no  drafts  will  be  on  the 
birds.  In  the  winter  this  ventilator  is  kept  closed.  The  back, 
ends  and  top  are  made  tight  so  that  there  will  be  no  drafts 
upon  the  birds. 

Sunlight  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  disinfectants,  even 
a  parasiticide  for  certain  young  parasites,  and  is  necessary  to 
the  health  and  contentment  of  the  fowls  It  has  the  advantage 
also  of  revealing  filth  in  the  building  which  might  otherwise 
escape  the  eye  of  the  attendant,  and  remain  to  breed  disease 
in  the  flock.  In  cold  climates  windows  must  be  provided  for 
light,  as  it  would  otherwise  be  dark  when  the  curtain  was 
down. 

The  scratch  material  or  litter  in  Avhich  the  grain  is  thrown  is 
usually  cleaned  out  once  every  three  months,  at  w^hich  time 
the  house  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected,  using 
a  spray  pump.  Whitewash  gives  a  clean  appearance,  but  most 
practical  poultrymen  have  discontinued  its  use,  for  lime 
makes  the  legs  rough  and  scales  flying  in  the  air  are  said  to 
sometimes  fly  into  the  eyes  and  cause  irritation.  In  spraying, 
use  any  standardized  coal  tar  disinfectant  dip.  Use  twelve 
tablespoonfuls  to  each  gallon  of  water  or  a  four  per  cent  solu- 
tion. The  spray  mixture  can  be  used  much  better  when  the 
lime  is  left  out.  Lime  in  a  dry  state  has  no  destructive  action 
upon  lice  or  mites,  as  we  have  shown  in  this  laboratory  that 
mites  will  live  in  dry  lime  for  more  than  three  days  and,  in 
fact,  till  they  die  of  starvation. 

The  perch  poles  should  be  saturated  with  kerosene  or  a  four 
per  cent  solution  of  some  standardized  coal  tar  disinfectant 
dip.    This  dip  is  of  short  lasting  qualities,  and  for  that  r(^asnn 


56  POULTRY  DISEASES 

the  kerosene  lasts  longer,  and  has  given  better  results  in  our 
tests.  The  perch  poles  should  be  free  from  cracks  and,  if 
possil)le,  should  not  touch  the  wall.  For  that  reason  many 
swing  the  perch  poles  from  the  ceiling.  The  dropping  boards 
should  be  cleaned  twice  a  week,  or  once  a  day  is  better.  Elites 
nuiltiply  in  the  droppings  as  well  as  in  the  cracks  of  the 
perch  pole  and  cracks  where  the  pole  rests  upon  its  support. 

WATER   SUPPLY 

Fowls  require  water  in  abundance  at  all  times  for  the  best 
production  of  eggs  (which  are  sixty  per  cent  water)  and  flesh 
(which  is  sixty  to  eighty  per  cent  water)  and  to  avoid  great 
suffering  during  hot  weather. 

The  water  should  be  clean,  supplied  fresh  every  day,  and  in 
vessels  so  arranged  that  the  birds  cannot  get  into  them  and 
thus  contaminate  it  with  the  filth  from  the  yards  which  ad- 
heres to  their  feet.  As  is  shown  under  the  discussions  of  the 
various  infectious  diseases  and  j)arasitisms.  these  are  spread 
in  most  cases,  not  by  direct  contagion  ])etween  the  sick  and  the 
well  birds,  but,  indirectly  through  the  medium  of  the  soil  and 
the  roosts  on  which  the  lairds  live,  the  food  that  they  eat,  and 
the  water  that  they  drink. 

The  vessels  containing  the  drinking  water  should,  under 
normal  conditions,  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected  daily 
in  hot  weather,  and  once  a  week  the  remainder  of  the  year. 
AVhen  disease  is  present  in  the  flock,  the  vessels  for  drinking 
water  should  be  cleaned  daily,  regardless  of  the  season,  and 
tliis  practice  should  be  continued  for  several  days  after  all 
symptoms  of  the  disease  have  ceased  to  appear  in  the  flock. 
Vessels  containing  water  for  small  chicks  should  be  cleaned 
daily. 

The  cleaning  is  mainly  a  matter  of  thorough  washing;  the 
disinfection  of  drinking  vessels  can  best  be  accomplished  with 
a  five  per  cent  solution   (in  water)  of  carbolic  acid. 

Chickens  tolerate  certain  antiseptics  internally  very  well 
and  do  not  resent  the  taste  of  them  in  drinking  water  to  the 
extent  that  other  animals  do,  and  it  is  a  wise  policy  to  use 
antiseptics  in  the  drinking  water  whenever  an  infectious  dis"-' 
ease  is  present  on  the  premises  or  when  the  purity  of  tlie 
Avater  is  under  suspicion. 

The  most  desirable  aiitise])tic  to  use  in  llic  drinking  water 
is  potassium  permanganate.  I  Mace  a  ({uantity  of  the  crystals 
in  a  large  l)ottle  or  jar  and  fill  with  watery  of  this  solution  use 
sufficient  in  the  drinking  watci-  to  give  it  a  slight  color  which 
will  rcmnin  for  some  hours.     ^More  Avater  can  be  nddcd  1o  the 


SANITATION  57 

stock  solution  from  time  to  time,  as  needed,  care  being  taken 
to  keep  an  excess  of  the  permanganate  crystals  always  in  the 
bottom  of  the  jar. 

Permanganate  of  potash  may  he  usetl  to  advantage  in  water 
containing  a  large  amount  of  organic  matter. 

Pure  carbolic  acid  may  be  used  in  the  drinking  water  with 
good  effect  during  the  ])resence  of  contagion,  or  to  insure  the 
l)urity  of  the  water.  Add  a  sufficient  quantity  to  make  a  one- 
lialf  of  one  per  cent  solution  (tive  teaspoonfuls  to  the  gallon). 
Do  not  use  the  permanganate  and  the  carbolic  acid  at  the 
same  time. 

Under  many  conditions,  particularly  when  enteric  diseases 
are  present  m  the  flock,  mercuric  chlorid  (corrosive  subli- 
mate, bichlorid  of  mercury,  perchlorid  of  mercury)  is  a  valu- 
able antiseptic  for  the  drinking  water.  Employ  it  in  solutions 
of  1  to  5,000  to  1  to  10,000  (from  three-fourths  to  one  and 
one-half  grains  to  the  gallon). 

Both  mercuric  chlorid  and  carbolic  acid  are  very  poison- 
ous and  must  be  handled  with  great  care.  On  this  account; 
the  comparatively  hannless  potassium  permanganate  should 
he  used,  or  chinosol,  which  is  equally  harmless,  may  be  used 
in  a  solution  of  1  to  2,000. 

DISINFECTION 

The  removal  of  parasites  and  disease  germs  or  their  de- 
struction is  termed  disinfection.  Because  of  the  ability  of 
these  organisms  to  multiply,  from  a  single  individual  or  a 
single  pair,  at  an  astonishing  rate  and  speedily  reinfest  the 
premises,  it  is  obvious  that  to  be  of  any  value  the  disinfect- 
ing must  be  thoroughlj^  done.. 

The  first  step  in  any  disinfection  is  the  removal  of  all 
visible  filth.  A  small  lump  of  manure  behind  a  nest  box  or 
a  single  grain  of  dirt  in  a  crack  in  the  floor  or  on  the  roosts 
may  furnish  the  hiding  place  from  which  will  emerge  the 
parasites  or  germs  to  reinfest  the  whole  building,  and  spread 
disease  anew  among  the  flock,  thus  undoing  the  whole  of  the 
disinfection. 

Disinfection  of  Buildings 

The  first  operation  in  disinfecting  a  poultry  house,  there- 
fore, is  the  thorough  removal  of  all  manure,  trash  and  litter. 
If  the  roosts  and  nests  are  removed  from  the  building,  they 
must  be  cleaned  and  disinfected  before  they  are  returned; 
if  left  in  the  building  during  the  disinfection,  they  must  be 
as  thoroughly  cleaned  as  the  remaiTider  of  the  building,  and 


58  POULTRY  DISEASES 

the  disinfectant  used  must  be  applied  to  them  as  carefully 
as  to  other  parts  of  the  building. 

The  floor  and  roosts  should  next  be  scraped,  and  they  and 
the  walls  and  ceiling  carefully  and  vigorously  s\vei)t.  All 
parts  of  the  interior  of  the  building  must  then  be  thoroughly 
scrubbed  with  water,  to  which  lye  has  been  added,  and  a 
broom  or  stiff  brush  and  then  Hushed  out,  using  plenty  ot 
water.  The  building  is  then,  and  not  till  then,  ready  for 
the  use  of  the  disinfectant. 

There  are  three  different  classes  of  agents  that  may  be 
successfully  used  in  disinfection.  The  disinfectant  may  be 
applied  (1)  in  gaseous  form,  (2)  as  a  liquid,  or  (3)  heat 
may  be  utilized. 

A  gas  may  be  used  in  disinfecting  only  when  the  building 
can  be  closed  tightly  enough  to  prevent  its  ready  escape. 
This  excludes  the  great  majority  of  poultry  houses;  but  in 
such  as  it  can  be  employed,  all  doors,  windows  and  other 
openings  nuist  be  tightly  closed  and  sealed  for  several  hours. 
After  disinfecting  a  building  with  gas  the  interior  should  be 
sprayed,  as  directed  under  the  use  of  liquid  disinfectants. 

Of  the  gases  that  may  be  used,  only  three  need  to  be  con- 
sidered here — hydrocyanic  acid,  formaldehyd  and  sulphur 
dioxid. 

Hydrocyanic  acid  gas  is  extremely  poisonous,  a  single 
breath  of  it  sometimes  sufficing  to  kill  a  man.  It  possesses 
the  advantage  of  requiring  but  a  few  minutes  to  effectively 
disinfect  a  building  and  of  killing  all  living  organisms  in 
it,  bacteria,  molds,  parasites  and  even  roaches  and  other  ver- 
min, and  rodents.  It  will  also  destroy  the  eggs  of  parasites. 
It  is  extremely  dangerous,  however,  except  ni  professional 
hands  and  its  use  nuist  not  be  attempted  by  the  poultry  man. 

Excluding  hydrocyanic  acid  on  account  of  the  hazard  at- 
tending its  use,  formaldehyd  is  the  gaseous  disinfectant  of 
choice.  It  may  be  procured  in  a  forty  per  cent  watery  solu- 
tion known  as  formalin,  from  which  the  gas  may  be  readily 
generated. 

After  hermetically  sealing  all  openings  into  the  ])uilding 
except  one  door,  place  in  an  earthen  or  metal  vessel  two 
quarts  of  formalin  for  each  1. 000  cubic  feet  of  space  in  the 
l)uilding,  place  this  vessel  in  a  much  larger  one  and  set  on 
the  floor,  then  empty  into  the  formalin  one-half  pound  of 
potassium  permanganate  for  each  f|uart  of  formalin  and  re- 
treat from  the  building  at  once  and  close  the  door. 

The  temperatui'c  of  the  room,  during  the  disinfection, 
should  be  above  ."iO  degrees  Fahreidieit,  and  the  more  it  is 


SANITATION  59 

ab()V('  this  UMiiperature,  the  ])ett('r.  ^loisture'  in  llie  air  i.s  an 
aid  ill  this  sort  of  disinfection;  it  may  be  secured  ])y  sprin- 
kling the  tioor  just  before  starting  the  generation  of  the  gas. 
The  ])uilding  should  l)e  kept  closed  six  to  twenty-four  hours. 
It  nuist  be  thoroughly  aired  before  the  fowls  are  permitted 
to  reenter  it. 

Such  disinfection  may  not  destroy  rats  and  mice,  or  the 
larger  parasites  and  their  eggs. 

For  disinfecting  with  sulphur  fumes,  the  ordinary  com- 
mercial flowers  of  sulphur  should  be  used.  It  must  be  burned 
in  the  building  to  generate  sulphur  dioxid,  which  is  effec- 
tive in  disinfection  only  in  the  presence  of  water  vapor ; 
therefore  some  means  for  providing  the  necessary  moisture 
in  the  building  must  be  provided.  This  may  be  accomplished 
by  spraying  the  walls  and  ceiling  until  they  are  dripping, 
just  before  beginning  the  disinfecting,  or  by  boiling  a  large 
vessel  of  water  in  the  building  during  the  generation  of  the 
sulphur  fumes. 

Fire  is  required  to  generate  the  sulphur  fumes  and  cars 
must  be  taken  not  to  endanger  the  building  with  it.  A  large 
iron  vessel  partly  filled  with  live  coals  may  be  used;  set  it 
on  the  floor,  or  if  the  floor  be  of  combustible  material,  on 
several  bricks  laid  on  the  floor,  and  pour  onto  the  live  coals 
two  pounds  of  sulphur  for  each  1,000  cubic  feet  of  space 
in  the  building.  Care  should  be  taken  to  ascertain  that  the 
sulphur  actually  begins  to  burn. 

The  building  should  remain  hermetically  sealed  for  from 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  and  then  be  thoroughly  aired 
before  the  fowls  are  admitted. 

Compared  with  hydrocyanic  acid  and  forma Idehyd,  sul- 
phur dioxid  is  a  feeble  disinfectant,  but  effective  work  may 
l)e  done  with  it  by  a  thorough,  careful  application,  and  at- 
tention to  all  details. 

The  disinfection  of  the  drinking  water  and  drinking  foun- 
tains is  discussed  fully  under  "Water  Supply."     (See  page 

5G.) 

Disinfectants  that  can  be  applied  in  licpiid  form  are  best 
suited  for  disinfecting  the  ordinary  poultry  house.  It  re- 
quires longer  to  api)ly  them  than  it  does  to  prepare  for  dis- 
infection by  gas,  and  germs  and  ])arasites  protecti^l  in  crevices 
and  in  decayed  surfaces  of  wooden  walls  cannot  be  reached, 
as  l)y  the  gaseous  disinfectants.  Fowls  need  not  be  shut  out 
of  the  building  for  several  hours,  as  is  the  case  when  the  gas 
is  used.  This  is  often  a  considerable  advantage.  Further- 
more, the  germs  and  parasites  hidden  in  the  walls  and  roosts 


60  POULTRY  DISEASES 

and  buried  in  the  decayed  surface  of  wooden  buildings  can 
in  a  great  measure  be  covered  up  and  ^rendered  iiarmless  by 
the  use  of  whitewash,  which  should  always  be  a  part  of  the 
cleaning -uj)  and  disinfecting  of  a  poultry  house. 

Liquid  disinfectants  are  best  applied  with  the  spray  pump, 
and  all  the  force  possible  should  be  used  in  throwing  the 
spray  on  the  walls.  In  this  way  it  will  reach  all  parts  of  an 
uneven  surface  better  than  when  applied  with  a  brush,  and 
much  time  will  be  saved  in  its  application. 

Disinfectants  will  act  more  vigorously  when  applied  hot, 
and  solutions  should  always  be  at  least  warm  when  they  reach 
the  surfaces  to  be  disinfected.  A  copious  quantity  should  be 
used.  The  solution  may  cost  but  a  fraction  of  a  cent,  or  at 
most  a  few  cents  a  gallon,  and  it  is  a  poor  policy  to  econo- 
mize by  using  an  insufficient  amount.  Every  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  interior  of  the  building  should  be  thoroughly 
wet  and  completely  covered  with  solution  when  disinfection 
is  completed;  great  care  must  be  observed  that  no  part  is 
skipped. 

Mercuric  chlorid  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  disinfectants, 
but  it  is  intensely  poisonous  and  must  be  used  Avith  caution. 
No  puddles  of  the  solution  should  be  left  from  which  the 
birds  may  drink  when  they  come  into  the  building,  and  tab- 
lets of  this  disinfectant  must  on  no  account  be  left  where 
children  can  get  them  or  where  their  elders  may  mistake 
them  for  something  else,  e.  g.,  a  headache  remedy. 

For  disinfecting  buildings  the  mercuric  chlorid  should  be 
applied  in  a  solution  of  one  to  five  hundred  (one  ounce  to 
four  gallons  of  water)  and  four  times  as  much  common  salt 
(one  ounce  to  the  gallon)  should  be  used  with  it.  The  solu- 
tion should  be  applied  as  hot  as  can  be  handled  with  a  spray 
pump.  After  the  surface  is  dry  it  is  a  good  precautionary 
measure  to  apply  the  disinfectant  a  second  time. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  disinfectants  that  may  be 
used  in  solution  for  disinfecting  poultry  houses,  l)ut  cer- 
tainly none  are  superior  to  the  coal  tar  disinfectants.  For- 
malin, for  example,  is  exceedingly  irritating  to  the  eyes  and 
respiratory  passages  of  the  one  doing  the  s])raying.  Po- 
tassium permanganate  needs  to  be  applied  in  almost  saturated 
solution  to  be  effective,  and  thus  l)ecomes  expensive.  A  solu- 
tion of  copper  sulphate  is  not  fatal  to  all  parasites.  Crude 
petroleum  leaves  the  building  unsightly  and  the  odor  per- 
sists unduly  long,  and  so  it  is  with  many  others. 

Of  the  coal  tar  disinfectants,  crude  carbolic  acid  perhaps 
stands  at  the  head  on  account  of  its  low  cost;  however,  it  is 


SANITATION  61 

quite  variable  in  composition.  It  should  I)e  used  in  five  per 
cent  solution.  Use  two  pounds  of  the  crude  carl)olic  acid  to 
each  five  gallons  of  the  whitewash.  Cresol,  another  of  the 
coal  tar  products,  gives  satisfactory  results  in  two  per  cent 
solution  (one  pint  to  six  gallons  Avater).  Pure  carbolic  acid 
is  rathci'  too  expensive  for  this  sort  of  disinfection  •  if  used,  a 
live  per  cent  solution  (one  pint  to  two  and  one-half  gallons 
water)  should  be  employed.  Kreso  dip  (Parke,  Davis  &  Co., 
Detroit),  zenoleum  (Zenner  Disinfectant  Co.,  Detroit),  liquor 
eresolus  compositus  (U.  S.  P.),  creolin  (Pearson),  and  many 
other  standardized  coal  tar  disinfectant  dips,  may  be  used. 

The  coal  tar  disinfectant  dips  when  mixed  with  water  i)ro- 
duce  a  soapy  emulsion.  The  alkalinity  of  the  soap  is  a  fac- 
tor that  assists  in  its  penetration,  although  kreso  and  like 
products  penetrate  almost  any  place,  yet  the  soapy  emulsion 
helps  to  bring  into  activity  the  cresols  and  hydrocarbons  of 
the   products. 

Eecently  it  has  been  shown  that  a  one  per  cent  creolin 
solution  in  low  grade  kerosene  used  as  a  spray  is  a  very 
effective  parasiticide.  Any  of  the  standardized  coal  tar  dis- 
infectant dips  may  be  likewise  used. 

While  spraying  is  in  progress,  remove  all  eggs  from  the 
nests,  as  eggs  readily  absorb  objectionable  odors. 

Heat  is  one  of  the  most  reliable  disinfectants.  It  may  be 
utilized  in  poultry  house  disinfection  in  the  form  of  a  flame 
from  a  gasoline  blow  torch.  Every  portion  of  the  walls,  ceil- 
ing, floor,  roosts,  nests  and  boxes  must  be  carefully  flamed. 
This  method,  though  tedious,  is  effective.  Used  with  ordi- 
nary care,  it  is  devoid  of  danger  to  the  operator  or  building. 

Disinfection  of  Yards 

A  complete  disinfection  of  poultry  yards  and  runs,  that 
is,-  a  destruction  of  all  the  disease  germs  and  parasites  witli 
which  the  premises  may  be  contaminated  by  an  infected  flock, 
is  scarcely  possible  by  the  ordinary  means  employed  in  poul- 
trv  house  disinfection.     Fortunatelv  it  is  seldom  necessarv. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  germs  of  nearly  all  dis- 
eases, and  the  eggs  of  nearly  all  internal  parasites  of  poultry, 
are  eliminated  in  the  dejecta  (feces)  of  affected  birds,  the 
danger  from  contaminated  runs  will  be  better  appreciated, 
and  with  the  realization  that  each  mature  hen  produces  nearly 
thirty  pounds  of  manure  per  year,  the  importance  of  the  yards 
as  a  factor  in  the  spread  of  disease  is  seen  to  be  very  great. 

The  problem  of  having  clean  (non-infected)  yards  for 
]>oultry  can  be  solved  only  by  a  change  of  grounds  from 
time  to  time.     As  mentioned  heretofore,  the  movable  poultry 


(i2  POULTRY  DISEASES 

house  offers  luaiiy  sanitary  advantages.  Plowing-  or  spad- 
ing a  yard,  thus  exposing  surface  layers  of  the  soil  to  the 
disinfeeting  action  of  the  sunshine,  and  keeping  the  birds 
oft'  it  for  a  season,  offers  the  most  practical  means  of  disin- 
fecting it.  Growing  crops  in  yards  while  idle  tend  to  use 
up  the  organic  matter  deposited  in  the  droppings. 

Where  the  construction  of  the  poultry  buildings  is  such 
as  preclude  a  change  of  location,  the  two-yard  system  can 
in  most  cases  be  installed.  It  off'ers  many  advantages :  While 
one  yard  is  being  used,  the  other  may  be  plowed  and  a  crop 
grown.  This  may  be  a  crop  upon  which  the  birds  may  be 
turned  for  half  an  hour  each  evening  to  allow  them  a  feed 
of  green  forage. 

In  an}^  system  of  yards  where  the  area  of  the  ground  is 
small  for  the  number  of  birds,  the  yard  should  receive  fre- 
quent attention  at  the  hands  of  the  cleaner.  If  the  yard  is 
grassed,  and  the  grass  is  short,  it  should  be  swept  weekly, 
gathering  the  manure  in  piles  and  carting  it  away,  as  street 
cleaners  do.  A  yard  that  is  bare  of  vegetation  can  be  cleaned 
in  the  same  way,  even  more  easily  and  eft'ectually.  This  will 
lengthen  the  "sanitary  life"  of  a  yard  to  many  times  its 
duration  without  such  cleaning. 

Immediately  surrounding  the  i)oultry  house  there  should 
be  a  strip  of  gravel  on  which  the  ])irds  may  be  fed,  and  on 
which  they  will  spend  much  of  their  time,  to  the  very  great 
saving  in  contamination  of  the  yard.  The  feeding  ground, 
of  course,  should  be  cleaned  (usually  by  sweeping)  frequently, 
and  it  may  be  thoroughly  wet  down  with  a  disinfectant  in 
case  of  a  serious  outbreak  of  infectious  disease. 

DISPOSAL  OF  SICK  AND  DEAD  BIRDS 

A  strict  adherence  to  the  rules  of  sanitation  would  re(iuire 
tliat  the  well  birds  be  removed  from  the  buildings  and  en- 
closures in  which  sick  birds  are  found,  or  in  which  l)irds  have 
died  of  disease,  and  that  they  be  not  returned  until  after 
thorough  disinfection  of  the  building  and  grounds.  Such  a 
procedure  is  not  often  i)racticable,  and  the  poultryman  is  left 
the  alternative  of  removing  the  sick  or  dead  birds  from  the 
flock  to  ])revent  as  far  as  i)Ossibl('  an  extension  of  the  infec- 
tion. 

AVhenever  an  ailing  bird  is  discovered  in  any  flock  it  should 
be  isolated  immediately.  Do  not  wait  to  discover  what  is  the 
matter  with  it,  whether  it  is  an  infectious  disease  or  a  dis- 
ease at  all,  or  to  decide  as  to  its  treatment.  Remove  it  from 
the  well  birds  first  and  decide  upon  further  measures  after- 


SANITATION  63 

ward.  Tlio  same  directions  apply  with  equal  force  to  the 
ilnding  of  dead  l)irds  among  the  well  ones.  Remove  the  car- 
cass immediately,  and  unless  there  is  conclusive  evidence  that 
death  was  not  due  to  disease  disinfect  the  place  where  it  has 
lain. 

Sick  birds  should  be  placed  by  themselves,  where  they  will 
not  be  molested  by  other  birds  or  animals.  They  should  be 
given  as  comfortable  quarters  as  possible  and  be  disturbed 
only  for  treatment.  Unless  the  poultryman  is  very  positive 
that  he  knows  what  ails  the  sick  bird,  and  what  means  should 
be  taken  to  prevent  others  in  the  flock  from  acquiring  the 
same  disease,  he  will  usually  find  it  best  to  call  a  veterinarian 
and  leave  the  matter  with  him ;  particularly  is  this  true  if 
there  are  a  large  number  of  birds  on  the  premises  or  if  the 
flock  be  one  of  high  value,  because  of  pure  breeding. 

Immediately  after  the  removal  of  a  dead  bird  from  the 
flock  the  poultryman  should  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  cause 
of  its  death.  If  it  is  obviously  due  to  accident  or  if  it  is  due 
to  some  disease  already  recognized  as  present  in  the  flock 
such  action  should  be  taken  as  the  conditions"  seem  to  Avar- 
rant,  but  if  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  what  has  occasioned  the 
death  a  careful  autopsy  should  be  held.  Since  a  postmorter.-i 
examination  ordinarily  means  very  little  to  one  without  at 
least  some  fundamental  training  in  pathology,  the  poultry- 
man  will  ordinarily  find  it  advantageous  to  take  the  dead 
bird  to  his  veterinarian  for  examination.  This  should  be 
done  immediat'cly,  before  the  changes  incident  to  decompo- 
sition have  masked  the  lesions  which  disease  may  have  pro- 
duced, or  before  parasites  that  may  have  caused  death  have 
changed  their  location  or  escaped  from  the  body. 

Mode  of  Performing  Autopsy 

Lay  the  bird  on  its  back.  AYith  a  sharp  knife  open  the 
abdominal  wall,  commencing  close  to  the  anus,  passing  the 
knife  forward  between  the  ribs  and  breastbone  to  a  point 
just  back  of  the  ''wishbone"  (clavicle).  In  like  manner 
open  the  left  side,  being  careful  not  to  injure  any  of  the 
organs  in  the  cavities.  Now  grasp  the  sternum  or  breast- 
bone, forcing  it  forward,  and  it  will  break  so  that  it  will  be 
easy  to  remove  it.  This  will  lay  the  cavities  open  so  that  all 
organs  can  be  observed,  as  illustrated  and  named  in  Fig.  2, 
to  which  refer  for  further  description. 

.  The  final  disposal  of  carcasses  of  birds,  whether  dying  from 
known  or  unknown  causes,  should  be  carefuUv  attendf^d  to. 
The  habit  of  throwing  dead  birds  onto  the  nearest  manure 


64  POULTRY  DISEASES 

pile  or  into  an  unoccupied  field  cannot  be  too  severely  con- 
demned. 

Among  many  people  there  is  a  belief  that  if  the  body  of 
a  person  that  has  died  is  not  properly  buried,  the  spirit  of 
the  departed  will  haunt  its  living  relatives  and  if  they  do 
not  heed  its  warnings,  bring  great  disaster  to  them.  If 
poultrymen  entertained  a  similar  l)elief  regarding  the  dis- 
posal of  dead  birds  it  would  save  them  much  loss  from  dis- 
ease and  parasites  among  their  flocks.  The  carcass  of  a 
bircl  that  has  died  of  an  infectious  disease  or  of  a  parasitism 
may  be  the  means  of  infecting  grounds  and  spreading  dis- 
ease among  the  flock  many  months  later,  or  portions  of  it 
may  be  carried  to  neighboring  farms  with  disastrous  results 
to  neighboring  flocks. 

The  carcasses  of  birds  found  dead  in  a  flock  should  be 
burned  whether  or  not  they  have  died  of  contagious  disease, 
for  even  if  they  have  died  of  some  cause  other  than  disease 
the  chances  are  that  they  harbor  intestinal  parasites  which 
are  capable  of  being  spread  from  the  carcass  to  live  birds. 
AMiere  time  cannot  be  taken  to  properly  burn  the  dead  birds 
they  should  be  buried  and  buried  deeply,  so  that  they  cannot 
be  dug  up  by  dogs,  skunks  or  foxes,  and  so  that  worms  may 
not  carry  infection  from  the  carcass  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 


SECTION  III 

EXTERNAL  PARASITES 

More  than  thirty  species  of  external  parasites  infest  l)irds: 
their  economic  importance  is  very  great;  fowls  heavily  in- 
fested with  an}^  of  them  are  unprofital)le,  and  many  of  these 
parasites  are  so  injurious  as  to  kill  the  infested  birds. 

It  is  necessary  to  know  something  of  the  life  history  of 
these  parasites  and  their  habits  to  intelligently  combat  their 
parasitisms.  This  information  is  given  as  briefly  as  possible 
in  the  following  pages : 

The  external  parasites  affecting  birds  consist  of  lice,  whicli 
infest  all  ages  and  breeds;  scah  parasites,  producing  scaly 
legs;  the  air  sac  mite,  which  is  a  modified  scab  parasite  and 
infests  the  air  sacs;  the  cliigger  (chigger  or  jigger)  or  red 
mite,  a  great  pest  in  the  hot  summer  months ;  a  distinct  bird 
fiea;  the  chicken  hug,  which  in  many  respects  resembles  the 
common  bedbug,  and  the  ring  worm.  In  all,  seven  different 
classes. 

LICE  OF  BIRDS 

This  embraces  a  group  of  biting  lice ;  their  bodies  are  flat 
and  their  mouth  parts  are  arranged  for  biting  and  cutting. 
They  live  upon  feathers,  epidermis  and  secretions  of  the 
body  of  their  host.  As  may  be  noted  in  Fig.  19,  the  mouth 
parts  are  located  just  back  of  the  antenna  and  are  not  al- 
ways" visible.  The  antennae  consist  of  five  articles  or  joints 
each.  The  thorax  in  some  species  is  long  and  narrow,  'n\ 
others  short  and  globular.  They  are  provided  with  three 
pairs  of  legs  which  are  attached  to  the  thorax.  The  free 
extremity  of  the  legs  is  provided  with  two  booklets  or  claws 
which  enable  them  to  hold  on  to  their  host.  The  body  and 
legs  may  be  covered  with  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  hair 
or  bristles. 

The  lice  of  birds  are  placed  under  the  following  genera: 
Menopon,  Goniodes,  Goniocotes,  Lipeurus,  Docophorus  and 
Nirmus. 

Menopon  hiseriatum  Cthe  large  chicken  louse). — This  is  the  larg- 
est louse  found  upon  chickens.  It  is  about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in 
length.  It  is  light  in  color.  Fig.  19  illustrates  this  louse  much 
enlarged;  the  short  mark  at  the  right  shows  the  actual  length  of 
this  louse.   This  parasite  is  common  on  the  heads  of  young  chickens. 

Menopon  pallidum   (the  small  chicken  louse). — This  louse  is  illus- 


66 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


trated  in  Pig.  20  and,  as  may  be  seen,  is  smaller  than  the  M.  biseri- 
atum.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  this  louse  is  the  more  common 
of  the  two  and  is  a  source  of  considerable  trouble.  It  may  spread 
from  chickens  to  other  animals  and  birds. 

Goniocotes  gigas. — This  is  the  largest  species  of  the  genus  Goni- 
ocotes,  and  is  recognizable  by  its  large  size  and  full-rounded  head.  In 
color  it  is  a  light  yellow  with  bands  and  outlines  along  the  outer 
border  of  the  abdomen.  The  female  rea .hes  the  length  of  4  mm. 
and  the  male  3  mm.  This  species  has  been  found  rather  common  in 
North  Carolina,  but  not  apparently  so  in  the  West  and  Middle  West. 
It  is  also  reported  as  common  in  Australia  and  reported  Irom  Eng- 
land.    It  infests   chickens. 

Goniodes  cHssimillia. — This  is  a  rather  large  louse  and  is  appar- 


-;B 


--C 


Fig.  19.  Menopon  Bi- 
seriatum. 

A,  head  provided 
with  mouth  parts  for 
biting,  feelers  (anten- 
nae) and  eyes;  H,  legs 
attached  to  the  thorax; 
C,  abdomen. 


Fig.    20.   Menopon  Pal- 
lidum. 

A,  head;  B,  thorax; 
l)rovided  with  three 
pairs  of  legs;  C,  abdo- 
men with  hairs. 


ently  rare.    The  head  is  subquadrate,  the  thorax  short  and  narrow 
and  the  abdomen  large  and  globular. 

Goniocotes  hologaster. — The  head  is  nearly  quadrate,  the  thorax 
narrow  and  the  abdomen  short  and  globular.  Fig.  21  illustrates  this 
species. 

Lipeurus  infuscatiis. — This  is  another  louse  that  may  infest  chick- 
ens. It  has  been  studied  in  the  author's  laboratory  and  has  also 
been  reported  by  Osborn  as  occurring  in  Iowa.  However,  it  is  not 
very  common.  Fig.  22  illustrates  this  louse.  This  louse  is  long  and 
slender.  The  front  part  of  the  head  is  rounded,  the  thorax  a  trifle 
narrower  than  the  head  and  the  abdomen  is  long  and  thin. 


LICE   OF  TURKEYS 

Goniodes  stylifer. — This  is  the  common  turkey  louse.  Its  head 
is  well  rounded  in  front,  rather  square  cut,  with  scallops  behind: 
the  thorax  is  narrow  and  the  abdomen  large  and  globular.  Fig.  23 
illustrates  this  louse. 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES 


67 


Lipeurus  poli/tnipczius. — This  is  a  long,  slender  louse,  with  two 
or  three  bristles  extending  from  each  segment  of  the  abdomen.  Its 
head  is  well  rounded  in  front  and  the  thorax  is  rather  broad  and 
long, 

LICE   OF   DUCKS 

Menopon  ohscunim. — The  head  is  crescent-shaped  in  front  and  the 
abdomen  has  dark,  lateral  bands.    It  is  dark  fawn  colored. 

Lipeurus  squalidus. — The  head  is  narrow  and  somewhat  elongated 
in  front.  There  are  six  hairs  on  the  front  part  of  the  head.  This 
louse  is  common  in  some  localities. 


Fig.  21.     Goniocotes 
hologaster. 

A,  mouth  piirts;  T?,  an- 
tennas; c,  liooklets  on  free 
extremitv    v)f    les. 


Fig.    22.    Lipeurcs 
Infuscatus. 

A,  mouth  parts;  B, 
abdomen;  drawins:  to 
right  of  head  ir.dicatcs 
actual  size. 


Fig.  23.     Goxiodes 
Stylifer. 

A,  mouth  parts;  B,  an- 
tennpe  (feelers);  C,  lees; 
drawing  to  right  ot  head 
indicates  actual  size. 


LICE  OF  GEESE 

Lipeurus  jejunus. — A  slender,  pale,  yellowish-white  louse.  It  is 
probably  universally  distributed. 

Trinoton  continuum. — This  is  a  fairly  large  louse,  covered  with 
few  hairs.    It  is  common  on  geese. 

LICE  OF  PIGEONS 

Lipeurus  haculus. — This  is  the  common  louse  of  the  pigeon.  It  is 
long,  slender,  light-colored  and  the  abdominal  segments  are  pro- 
vided with  two  or  three  hairs  on  each  side.  Fig.  24  illustrates  this 
parasite. 

THE  GRAY  CANARY  LOUSE 

This  insect  is  provided  with  a  slender,  elongated  body  and 
a  large  head,  provided  with  strong  jaws.  It  lives  upon  the 
feathers  of  the  bird.  It  does  not  suck  blood.  Its  sharp  claws 
irritate  the  skin  and  cause  discomfort  to  the  bird.  The  eggs 
of  the  gray  louse  are  cemented  to  the  feathers  and  are  easily 
removed. 


68 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


Treatment. — Blow  pyrethrum  into  the  feathers.  Use  only 
the  best  grade  powder.  Repeat  this  treatment  every  three 
days  till  the  bird  is  free  from  parasites.  Disinfect  the  cage 
with  a  two  per  cent  solution  of  nny  standardized  coal  tHv  dis- 
infectant dip. 

THE   CANARY   MITE 

The  canary  mite  is  a  small  spider-like  parasite  scarcely 
visible  to  the  unaided  eve.  Normallv  it  is  whitish  in  color 
])ut  when  fully  engorged  with  blood  is  a  bright  red.  It  lives 
by  sucking  blood  from  its  host.  These  mites  are  usually  not 
found  on  the  birds  during  the  day  but  make  their  attacks  at 


Fig.  24.  Lipeurus 
Baculus. 
A,  moutli  parts;  T>, 
antennoe ;  C,  legs; 
drawing  to  right  of 
head  indicates  actual 
size. 


F'iG.  25.  Eggs  or 
n'.tt  of  the  goniodes 
Stylifer  (greatly 
magnified). 

A,  egg  cemented 
to  the  barbs  of  the 
feather. 


night.  They  may  be  found  in  clusters  in  the  slits  of  the 
end  of  the  perch  poles,  or  around  the  metal  supports,  or,  in 
wooden  cages,  they  may  hide  in  crevices.  They  multiply  very 
rapidly  and  myriads  soon  produce  a  serious  condition  of  the 
bird. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  consists  of  the  same  inoasures 
as  outlined  under  the  gray  canary  louse. 


LIFE   HISTORY    OF   LICE 

The  females  of  lice  are  slightly  larger  than  the  males.  They  lay 
oval,  white  or  whitish-yellow  eggs  (nits),  and  securely  cement  them 
to  the  barbs  of  the  feathers.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  25.  When 
the  eggs  hatch  they  break  open  at  the  end  or  a  small  cap  is  lifted 
from  the  end,  in  much  the  manner  that  a  chick  escapes  from  the 
egg.  The  young  have  much  the  same  shape  as  the  adults  and  are 
ordinarily  considerably  lighter  in  color.    The  males  are  usually  less 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES  69 

numerous  than  the  females.  If  conditions  are  favorable  the  eggs 
hatch  in  from  ten  days  to  three  weeks,  and  the  lice  live  for  a 
considerable  period,  several  months  under  favorable  conditions. 
During  their  development  they  moult  frequently,  sometimes  as 
often  as  ten  times,  becoming  slightly  darker  with  each  molt. 

Lice  breed  with  great  rapidity;  it  has  been  computed  that 
the  unhindered  reproduction  of  a  single  pair  would  reach 
the  enormous  total  of  125,000  individuals  in  the  third  gen- 
eration, which  may  mature  in  eight  weeks! 

EFFECTS  OF  LOUSE  INFESTATION 

Chicks  hatched  in  the  incubator  are  free  from  lice  and 
stay  so  until  placed  with  lousy  hens  or  chicks,  or  in  quarters 
infested  by  lice.  Lice  produce  much  irritation ;  the  effect 
of  large  numbers  upon  birds  is  quite  marked.  The  lousy 
birds  scratch,  pick  at  the  feathers,  show  signs  of  being  drowsy, 
may  refuse  to  eat,  and,  in  growing  birds,  development  is  re- 
tarded. 

Young  chicks  infested  Avith  lice  often  sit  around,  moping, 
with  wings  hanging  down,  and  in  a  week  or  two  may  die. 
For  this  reason  brooder  chicks  sometimes  thrive  better,  grow 
faster,  and  are  freer  from  certain  lailmients  than  chicks 
hatched  by  the  hen.  It  has  been  said  that  lousy  birds  show^ 
a  greater  tendency  to  wallow  in  the  dust  than  those  not  in- 
fested. 

The  effect  of  lice  upon  older  birds  is  not  so  severe  as  upon 
younger  ones,  but  is  noted  in  conditions  of  flesh  and  in  the 
production  of  eggs.  The  irritation  is  sometimes  so  severe 
that  hens  desert  their  iiests.  Their  combs  may  become  dark 
or  black.  Birds  unable  to  rest  day  or  night  become  emaci- 
ated and  die. 

To  find  the  lice,  part  the  feathers  and  the  lice  will  be 
found  running  over  the  skin  or  base  of  the  feathers.  A 
favorite  location  for  lice  is  around  the  vent,  where  the  tem- 
perature is  warm;  but  they  may  be  found  on  any  part  of 
the  body  and  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  are  most  com- 
mon in' the  hottest  months  of  the  year,  July  and  August. 
During  these  months  conditions  are  more  favorable  for  their 
propagation. 

DEALING  WITH  LOUSE  INFESTATION 

A  time-honored  and  very  effective  method  of  treating  young 
chicks  for  lice  is  to  grease  the  head  and  neck,  under  the 
wings  and  around  the  vent.  Blue  ointment,  lard  and  sul- 
phur, salt  and  butter,  and  various  other  greases  are  used, 
but  none  is  more  effective  than  lard  alone,  which,  although 


70  POULTRY  DISEASES 

tedious  to  apply,  is  justified  by  the  excellence  of  the  results 
obtained  from  its  application.  Care  must  be  exercised  in 
using  blue  ointment,  as  there  is  some  danger  accompanying 
its  excessive  use.  The  same  is  true  to  a  large  extent  of  the 
other  ointments. 

Older  chickens  may  be  either  dusted  with  insect  powder 
or  dipped  in  a  preparation  for  destroying  the  parasites  as 
we  dip  larger  animals.  Pyrethrum  is  an  excellent  powder 
for  ridding  birds  of  lice ;  this  should  be  sprinkled  in  the 
dusting  places  of  ■  the  infested  chickens.  Dusting  places 
should  always  be  provided. 

An  insect  powder  gun  is  needed  for  dusting  the  birds. 
This  may  be  secured  at  almost  any  drug  store. 

If  it  is  the  wish  to  dip  the  birds,  prepare  a  five  per  cent 
solution  of  creolin,  or  the  same  strength  of  either  Zenoleum 
or  Kreso  dip. 

The-  Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  gives  the  fol- 
lowing directions  for  freeing  birds  from  lice: 

When  the  treatment  of  individual  birds  for  lice  becomes 
necessary  some  kind  of  powder  dusted  into  the  feathers  thor- 
oughly seems  to  be,  on  the  whole,  the  most  effective  and  ad- 
visable remedy.  The  powder  used  must  be  of  such  a  nature, 
however,  that  it  will  be  effective.  There  are  so-called  "lice 
powders"  on  the  market  which  are  no  more  effective  than 
an  equal  quantity  of  any  inert  powdered  substance  would  be. 
It  is  not  only  a  waste  of  money  but  of  time  as  well  to  use 
such  powders.  At  the  J\Iaine  Station  no  louse  powder  has 
been  found  that  is  so  satisfactory  as  that  originally  invented 
by  Mr.  R.  C.  Lawry,  formerly  of  the  poultry  department  of 
Cornell  University.  This  powder  (which  can  be  made  at  a 
cost  of  five  cents  per  pound)  is  described  as  follows  by  the 
Maine  Station: 

In  using  any  kind  of  louse  powder  on  poultry,  it  should  always 
he  remembered  that  a  single  application  of  it  is  not  sufficient. 
When  there  are  lice  present  on  a  bird  there  are  always  unhatched 
eggs  of  lice  (nits)  present,  too.  The  proper  procedure  is  to  follow 
up  a  first  application  of  powder  with  a  second  at  an  interval  of 
four  days  to  a  week.  If  the  birds  are  badly  infested  at  tbe  be- 
ginning:, it  may  be  necessary  to  make  still  a  third  application. 

The  louse  powder  which  the  station  uses  is  made  at  a  Ccst  of 
only  a  few  cents  a  pound.  In  the  following  way: 

Three  parts  of  gasoline  and  one  part  of  crude  carbolic  acid,  90-95 
per  cent  strength,  or,  if  the  90-95  per  cent  strength  crude  carbolic 
acid  cannot  be  obtained,  take  three  parts  of  gasoline  and  one  part 
of  cresol. 

Mix  these  together  and  add  j,radually,  with  stirring,  enough 
plaster  of  paris  to  take  up  all  the  moisture.  As  a  general  rule 
it  will  take  about  four  quarts  of  plaster  of  paris  to  one  quart 
of  the  liquid.     The  exact  amount,  however,  must  be  determined  by 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES 


71 


the  condition  of  tlie  powder  in  each  case.  The  liquid  and  dry- 
plaster  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  stirred  so  that  the  liquid 
will  be  uniformly  distributed  through  the  mass  of  plaster.  When 
enough  plaster  has  been  added  the  resulting  mixture  should  be  a 
dry,  pinkish-brown  powder  having  a  fairly  strong  carbolic  odor 
and  a  rather  less  pronounced  gasoline  odor.  Do  not  use  more  plaster 
in  mixing  than  is  necessary  to  blot  up  the  liquid. 

This  powder  is  to  be  worked  into  the  feathers  of  the  birds  affrcted 
with  vermin.  The  bulk  of  the  application  should  be  in  the  fluff 
around  the  vent  and  on  the  lower  side  of  the  body  and  in  the  fluff 
under  the  wings.     Its  efficiency,  wiiich  is  greater  than  that  of  any 


Fig.  26.     Inexpensive,   Durable   Spray  Pump. 


other  louse  powder  known  to  the  writer,  can  be  very  easily  demon- 
strated by  anyone  to  his  owm  satisfaction.  Take  a  bird  that  is 
covered  with  lice  and  apply  the  powder  in  the  manner  just  de- 
scribed. After  a  lapse  of  about  a  minute,  shake  the  bird,  loosening 
its  feathers  with  the  fingers  at  the  same  time,  over  a  clean  piece 
of  paper.  Dead  and  dying  lice  will  drop  on  the  paper  in  great  num- 
bers. Anyone  who  will  try  this  experiment  will  have  no  further 
doubt  of  the  wonderful  efficiency  and  value  of  this  powder. 

After  freeing  the  flock  from  lice,  care  should  be  exercised 
that  a  reinfestation  is  not  brought  about  by  the  introduction 
of  lousv  birds. 


72  POULTRY  DISEASES 

The  infested  henhouse  should  be  thoroughly  and  frequently 
cleaned  and  the  walls  sprayed.  The  spray  should  contain 
some  parasiticide  as  carbolic  acid  five  per  cent,  creolin  five 
per  cent  or  corrosive  sublimate  one  part  in  one  thousand. 
The  roosts  should  be  scru])bed  with  ])oiling  water  and  after 
drying  in  the  sun  sliould  be  saturated  Avith  kerosene.  The 
litter  and  straw  should  be  removed  from  the  nests  and  burned 
and  the  nest  boxes  disinfected  before  refilling  them  with 
straw.  If  the  henhouse  be  tightly  closed,  doors,  windows, 
cracks  and  all  openings,  and  thoroughly  fumigated  with  sul- 
phur fumes  and  w^ater  vapor,  it  will  aid  in  destroying  lice 
or  other  parasites  that  may  be  in  the  cracks  and  crevices,  and 
difficult  to  reach  with  the  spray.  Fig.  26  illustrates  a  cheap 
and  convenient  spray  pump  for  applying  the  spray.  AA^ith 
this  some  force  is  used  which  drives  the  parasite-destroying 
fluid  into  the  cracks  and  crevices  not  possible  to  reach  where 
it  is  applied  with  a  brush. 

SCABIES 

The  acarids,  or  mites,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  are 
exceedingly  cojnmon,  widely  distributed  and  of  great  eco- 
nomic importance.  They  are  eight-legged  parasites,  belong  to 
the  spider  family  and  are  so  small  as  to  be  nearly  or  quite 
invisible  to  the  unaided  eye,  though  readily  discernible  with 
the  aid  of  a  hand  lens  of  low  magnifying  power. 

There  are  numerous  species  of  mites  that  infest  birds.  Some 
live  on  the  feathers  and  scales  of  the  skin,  others  bore  into 
the  skin  and  still  others  inhabit  deeper  portions  of  the  body. 

There  is  one  form  of  scabies  called  depluming  scabies  that 
is  very  rare,  and  so  far  as  the  author  knows  has  not  been 
reported  in  this  country.  It  affects  the  body  of  both  chickens 
and  pigeons.  The  one  on  chickens  is  the  Sarcoptes  laevei  va- 
riety gallinae  and  the  one  on  pigeons  is  the  Sarcoptes  laevei 
variety  columhae. 

The  acarids  parasitic  for  birds  are  placed  under  the  fol- 
lowing genera :  sarcoptes,  cytodites,  trombidium  and  dermanys- 
sus.  Unlike  the  various  genera  of  lice,  the  scab  parasites 
differ  greatly  in  the  effects  which  they  produce,  and  therefore 
a  separate  discussion  of  each  one  will  be  given. 

SCALY  LEGS— SCABIES  OF  THE  LEGS— FOOT  MANGE 

This  condition  is  very  common ;  it  constitutes  leg  scabies, 
and  is  caused  by  a  parasite  called  the  Sarcoptes  mutans  va- 
riety gallinae. 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES 


73 


SARCOPTES  MUTANS 

Description.— This  parasite  is  one  of  the  same  family  of  scab 
parasites  that  infest  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  sheep  and  cats.  That 
particular  branch  of  the  family  affecting  chickens  is  distinguished 
by  calling  it  "variety  gallinge";  gallinte  being  a  Latin  word  mean- 
ing "of  the  chicken."  Owing  to  the  small  size  of  the  parasite,  it 
is  often  called  a  mite.  Fig.  27  illustrates  the  parasite  magnified 
100  times;  the  actual  size  of  the  parasite  is  shown  by  the  small 
dot  in  the  square  at  the  right  side  of  the  drawing.  In  the  drawing 
it  will  be  noted  that  the  legs  are  short  and  strong  and  that  its 
mouth  parts  are  arranged  for  biting  the  skin.  They  subsist  upon 
serum  that  exudes  at  the  point  of  attack  and  forms  scales  or  scabs 
(see  Fig.  28). 

Life  History. — The  female  lays  her  eggs  under  the  scabs,  where 
in  about  ten  days  they  hatch,  if  conditions  are  favorable.  The 
larvae  or  young  mites  are  provided  with  only  three  pairs  of  legs  and 
are  not  provided  with  sexual  organs.  They  pass  through  several 
molts  and  are  finally  developed  into  the  adult  stage,  and  at  that 
time  are  provided  with  four  pairs  of  legs,  with  genital  organs  and 
are  sexually  mature. 

The  tearing  off  of  the  scabs  favors  the  escape  of  the  parasites, 
which  in  w-arm  weather  may  live  in  the  filth,  roosts,  nests  or  other 
parts  of  the  building  for  at  least  thirty  days,  and  may  in  that  time 
find  their  w^ay  upon  other  birds  and  infest  them,  causing  in  turn 
scaly  legs  on  the  new  host.  Thus  birds  become  affected  by  being 
placed  in  infested  quarters,  or  by  having  an  infested  bird  placed  in 
the  same  lot  or  enclosure  as  at  poultry  shows,  should  any  of  the 
birds   there  be  infested. 

Symptoms. — This  parasite  attacks  chickens,  turkeys  and 
cage  birds,  but  the  writer  has  not  observed  it  infesting  ducks 
or  geese.  It  always  attacks  the  unfeath- 
ered  portion  of  the  legs  above  the  foot,  and 
often  the  upper  portion  of  the  toes.  The 
minute  parasite  crawls  under  the  scales  of 
the  legs  and  there  irritates  the  tissue  by 
attacking  it  with  its  strong  mouth  parts. 
As  a  result  of  this  irritation  a  vesicle  or 
small  blister  appears.  The  blister  is  prac- 
tically microscopic  in  size  and  later  rup- 
tures. This  small  Cjuantity  of  serum  dries 
and  forms  a  minute  scale.  These  scales 
accumulate  until  later  large,  scaly  masses 
appear.  Fig.  28  is  a  good  illustration  of 
this  condition. 

The  parasites  can  be  found  as  minute 
white  specks  in  the  serum  between  the 
scab  and  leg.  Both  legs  are  usually  af- 
fected at  the  same  time.  Itching  is  pres- 
ent and  the  birds  may  pick  at  the  affected  parts.  Itching  is 
more  intense  at  night.  The  birds  may  become  weak,  stop  laying 
and  even  die  from  the  effects  of  the  irritation  and  loss  of  rest. 


Fig.  27.  Sarcoptes 
M  u  T  A  N  s.  Variety 
Gallinae. 

A,  mouth  parts;  1>, 
short,  stubby  legs;  C, 
dot  indicating  actual 
size  of  parasite. 


74 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


Treatment :  Eraclication. — The  scabby  patches  should  be 
soaked  with  soapy  water  till  the  scabs  can  be  easilj^  removed 
(this  will  take  time,  but  in  valuable  birds  it  will  pay;  if  of  in- 
sufficient value  to  justify  this  expenditure  of  time  and  labor, 
kill  the  bird  and  burn  the  affected  parts,  the  legs  and  feet). 
After  removal  of  all  scabs  possible,  scrub  thoroughly  with 
gasolene  or  kerosene  or  kerosene  emulsion,  using  a  nail  brush 

and  taking  pains  to  make 
certain  that  the  liquid  roach- 
es the  deepest  parts. 

Kerosene  emulsion  is  made 
as  follows:  Kerosene  (coal- 
oil)  one-half  gallon,  common 
soap,  two  ounces,  water,  one 
quart.  Dissolve  the  soap  by 
boiling  in  the  water,  add  this 
solution,  boiling  hot,  to  the 
kerosene  and  stir  with  an  egg- 
beater,  or  otherwise  violently 
agitate.  When  ready  for  use 
take  one  part  of  the  emulsion 
and  add  to  this  nine  parts  of 
water. 

L  i  m  e-and-Sidpliur  Dip. — 
This  well-known  parasiticide 
used  warm  and  scrubbed 
thoroughly  under  the  scales 
is  very  effective.  The  lime 
and  sulphur  dip  is  made  as 
follows :  Unslacked  lime,  one- 
third  of  a  pound,  sulphur, 
one  pound,  water,  four  gal- 
lons. This  mixture  should  be  boiled  for  two  hours  and  the 
amount  lost  by  evaporation  made  up  by  adding  water.  The 
lime  acts  as  a  solvent  for  the  sulphur;  the  dissolved  sulphur 
is  a  valuable  parasiticide. 

Commercial  Disinfectants. — Five  per  cent  solution  (in  w^a- 
ter)  of  creolin,  zenoleum,  or  kreso  dip  is  also  effective.  These 
solutions  should  be  used  warm. 

Premises. — For  the  eradication  of  scab  parasites  from  in- 
fested premises,  follow  the  directions  given  for  ridding  pre- 
mises of  lice.     (See  page  72.) 

AIR  SAC  DISEASE 

This  is  a  very  serious  mabidy  of  birds  that  is  fortunately 
rather  rare  in  this  country;  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  eradi- 


FiG.    28.    Scaly  Legs   (Scabies). 

a,  mass  of  scabs  due  to  dried  serum 
that  exudes  from  injured  part;  b,  scale 
of  leg  forced  up  and  out  of  place  by 
accumulation  of  dried  serum. 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES 


75 


cate  once  it  has  become  established  in  a  flock.  It  is  due  to  a 
scab  parasite  called  Cytodites  nuclus,  synonyms  for  which 
are:  Cijtoleichus  sarcoptides,  Cnemidocoptes  mutans,  and  air- 
sac  mite. 

Cytodites  Nudus 

Description. — The  body  of  this  parasite  is  ovoid  in  shape  as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  29.  It  is  whitish  in  color  and  is  provided  with 
conical-shaped  mouth  parts,  through  which  it  sucks  fluids  from  the 
parts  infested.  The  legs  are  rather  short,  conical,  and  in  both 
male  and  female  all  are  provided  with  suckers,  which  aid  in  moving 
about  and  in  holding  on.  The  legs  are  composed  of  five  articles 
(segments  or  joints)  each.  The  larva  has  three  pairs  of  legs 
and  the  adult  four  pairs. 

Life  History. — The  ovigerous  female  lays  eggs,  as  a  rule,  but  at 
times  has  been  observed  to  deposit  eggs  ready  to  hatch  and  even 
young  larvae.  The  larvae  pass  through  changes  similar  to  those 
of  the  scaly-leg  mite  by  moulting  several  times,  and  finally  reaching 
the  adult  or  sexually  developed  stage. 

Symptoms. — The  air  sac  mite  inhabits  the  al)dominal  air 
sacs,  the  air  spaces  of  bones,  and  the  air  cells  (alveoli)  of  the 
luno's  of  chickens  and  pii^eons.  If 
only  a  few  parasites  are  present  no 
symptoms  may  be  noticeable,  but  if 
they  exist  in  large  numbers  their  ef- 
fects may  be  serious.  The  bird  will 
become  thin  in  flesh  and  even  emaci- 
ated, will  appear  dull,  stay  apart  from 
the  others  of  the  flock,  and  the  comb 
will  usually  be  pale  in  color.  The 
wings  will  droop  and  there  will  be 
labored  (heavy,  difficult)  breathing. 
Coughing  may  occur  and  a  rattling  of 
mucus  (rales)  in  the  trachea  or  bronchi 
may  often  be  heard. 

Postmortem   Appearances.   —   By   a 
careful    examination    of    the    infested 

air  sacs  or  the  bronchi  and  sacules  of  the  lungs,  the  mites 
may  be  found  appearing  as  minnte  white  specks,  about  the 
size  of  the  scaly  leg  parasites. 

For  the  specimen  from  which  the  accompanying  drawing 
(Fig.  29)  was  made,  the  author  is  indebted  to  Dr.  W.  B. 
^lack.  Reno,  Nevada,  who  olitained  it  from  a  flock  of  birds 
examined  in  New  York.  Besides  the  white  specks  moving  on 
the  surfaces  of  the  air  sacs,  whitish-yellow  ]~)oints.  due  to  the 
irritation  caused  by  the  parasite,  may  be  found.  The  bronchi 
may  be  congested.  In  severe  cases  inflammation  or  bronchitis, 
and  even  pneumonia,  may  exist. 

The  air-sac   mite  has  also  been  reported   as  infesting  the 


Fig. 

a, 
rum ; 
rum. 


29.   Cytodites   Nudus. 

rostrum;    b,    ambulac- 
c,  pedicle  of  ambulac- 


76 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


liver,  kidneys  and  other  abdominal  organs,  in  which  cases  they 
produce  yellowish,  pearl-like  nodules  or  tubercles. 

An  outbreak  of  this  disease  in  Colorado  was  studied  by  the 
author  during  the  spring  of  1912,  in  which  several  birds  in  a  flock 
of  sixty  became  ill.  They  were  dull  and  weak,  with  a  partial  loss 
of  appetite  and  a  tendency  to  crane  their  necks  when  they  tried 
to  swallow,  became  poor  in  flesh  and  after  one  to  two  or  three 
weeks  died.  The  comb,  in  most  instances,  turned  black  shortly 
before  death. 

On  autopsy  there  were  found  myriads  of  small,  yellowish-white 
specks  over  the  abdominal  air  sacs,  lungs  and  trachea.  These 
specks,  when  examined  under  the  microscope,  proved  to  be  the 
air-sac  mite  (Cytoclitcs  mid  as)  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  29. 

Treatment. — It  is  said  that  sulphur  given  with  the  feed 
will  be  absorbed  and  eliminated  by  the  lungs  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  kill  the  parasites  that  infest  them,  but  this  is 
doubtful.  A  1  etter  method  of  handling  an  outbreak  of  air- 
sac  disease  among  birds  of  average  value  is  to  kill  all  the 
birds  in  an  infested  flock  and  disinfect  the  premises.  None 
of  them  should  be  sold,  as  they  may  find  their  way  into  other 
flocks  and  infest  them.  It  is  a  very  serious  disease  and  one 
of  which  it  is  difficult  to  rid  the  flock. 

CHIGGER  (JIGGER)  OR  RED  MITE  INFESTATION 

There  are  two  varieties  of  chiggers  found  in  this  country, 
one  is  the  Tromhicliuni  Iwlosericeum,  the  other  the  Dermanys- 
siis  gallince. 

Trombidium  Holosericeum 
This   parasite   is   the   common    chigger    (jigger)    or   red   mite    of 
the  henhouse. 

Description. — It  is  very  small.     The  body  is  oval  in  shape;   it  is 

provided  with  four  pairs  of  legs 
in  the  adult  state  and  three  pairs 
in  the  larval.  The  distal  end  of 
each  leg  is  provided  with  two 
booklets  or  claws,  with  which  it 
clings  to  objects  and  which  en- 
able it  to  crawl  about.  Its 
mouth  parts  are  conical  in  shape, 
as  illustrated  in  the  drawing. 
(See  Fig.  30.) 

Life  History. — IMites  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  cracks  and  crevices 
and  filth  of  henliouses.  If  the 
temperature  is  warm  the  eggs 
hatch  in  a  few  days  into  the  asex- 
ual, six-legged  state.  After  pass- 
ing through  a  few  molts  it  ar- 
rives at  the  eight-legged,  sexual 
or  adult  state.  The  parasite 
multiplies  very  fast  in  the  warm- 
and    August,    when    conditions    are 


■^if^i^rf. 


Fig.    30.    Trombidium    Holosericeum. 
a,   mouth  parts;   b,   palpi;   c,    uterus. 

er   parts    of   the   summer,   July 


more  favorable  for  its  propagation. 


^  ■  EXTERNAL  PARASITES  77 

Symptoms  of  Tromhkliam  Infestation. — By  means  of  its 
conical  mouth  parts,  referreci  to  above,  it  wounds  the  skin 
and  sucks  bk)od.  The  engorged  parasite  is  1)1  ue  to  red  in 
color,  depending  u])on  the  quantity  of  blood  taken  into  the 
digestive  tract.  During  the  summer  of  1911  tlie  author  ob- 
served one  infested  iiock  of  chickens  in  which  the  atfected 
birds  showed  symptoms  similar  to  birds  infested  with  lice. 
They  became  unthrifty,  ceased  laying,  sitting  hens  deserted 
their  nests,  all  exhibited  unkempt  appearance  of  the  fealhers 
and  many  died.  IMany  were  found  dead  under  the  roosts  of 
mornings.  Examination  of  the  nests,  roosts  and  birds  revealed 
millions  of  the  parasites.     This  was  in  the  month  of  August. 

Treatment:  Eradication. — The  same  treatment  as  for  lice 
Avill  be  found  very  effective.  Absolute  cleanliness,  plenty  of 
kerosene  or  some  standardized  coal  tar  disinfectant  dip  re- 
peatedly applied  to  the  roosts,  and  especially  the  under  sides, 
cracks  where  the  roost  pole  rests  on  its  support,  and  the  inside 
of  the  nests,  will  prove  of  value  in  combating  the  condition. 

There  is  common  belief  that  tobacco  clippings,  sulphur,  paris 
green,  and  a  host  of  liquids,  are  great  destroyers  of  these  formid- 
able foes  of  the  poultry  house,  but  no  one  so  far  as  we  could  find 
has  actually  made  tests  to  prove  it.  It  was  thought  best  to  try 
a  score  of  the  more  common  agents  used. 

Mode  of  Tests. — The  tests  were  run  either  in  open  tumblers  or 
sauce  dishes  so  as  to  have  an  abundance  of  air  present  and  to 
have  the  tests  as  nearly  under  normal  conditions  as  possible. 

Agents  Used. — The  agents  used  fall  into  three  classes,  namely: 
dry  powder,  liquid  and  liquids  that  give  off  gases  as  well  as  powder 
that  gives  off  gases.  Tests  were  made  with  sulphur,  air  slaked 
lime,  paris  green,  naphthalene,  gasoline,  carbolic  acid,  insect  powder, 
tobacco  stems  and  dust,  crude  carbolic  acid,  five  per  cent  carbolic 
acid,  one  per  cent  kreso  dip,  two  per  cent  kreso  dip,  five  per  cent 
naphthalene  in  kerosene  and  pyrethrum. 

^^ulphur. — Flowers  of  sulphur  was  placed  in  the  bottom  of  two 
saucers  and  several  hundred  mites,  some  very  vigorous,  were  placed 
on  top  of  the  sulphur.  At  the  end  of  five  hours  the  mites  were 
still  walking  over  the  sulphur.  Dry  powdered  sulphur  has  appar- 
ently no  destructive  action  upon  them. 

Air  Slaked  Lime. — Air  slaked  lime  was  placed  in  the  bottom  of 
a  tumbler.  At  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours  the  mites  had  accumu- 
lated in  a  cluster  in  the  center  of  the  dry  lime.  Upon  being  poured 
out  onto  a  paper  they  were  found  to  still  remain  vigorous.  Dry 
air  slaked  lime  has  apparently  no  injurious  effect  upon  them. 

Paris  Green. — Dry  paris  green  (powder)  was  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  a  tumbler  and  several  hundred  mites  placed  in  the  powder  and 
stirred.  At  the  end  of  forty-eight  hours  the  mites  had  formed  in 
a  cluster  in  one  edge  of  the  powder.  Upon  being  removed  they 
were  found  to  be  as  vigorous  as  before  being  placed  in  the  paris 
green.     Dry  paris  green  apparently  has  no  ill  effect  upon  mites. 

Xaphthalene  (powdered  moth  balls). — A  quantity  of  pulverized 
moth  balls  were  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  tumbler  and  several  hun- 
dred vigorous  mites   placed  on  the   surface.     At   the  end  of  thirty 


78  POULTRY  DISEASES 

minutes  motion  was  not  so  active  and  at  the  end  of  forty-five 
minutes  all  motion  ceased  and  upon  being  removed  and  placed  upon 
paper  all  were  found  to  be  dead. 

Tolxicco  Bits. — Bits  of  tobacco  leaves,  the  sweepings  from  the 
floor  of  a  tobacco  factory,  were  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a  tumbler 
and  several  hundred  very  active  mites  placed  in  the  tobacco.  Fre- 
quent observations  were  made  and  at  the  end  of  seventy-two  hours 
the  mites  were  as  active  as  when  they  were  placed  in  the  tumbler. 

Insect  Powder. — A  powder  prepared  in  this  laboratory  consists  of 
gasoline  three  parts,  crude  carbolic  acid  one  part  and  plaster  of 
paris  sufficient  to  make  a  rather  dry  mixture.  This  was  passed 
through  a  sieve  onto  paper  and  after  one  hour  placed  in  tight  jars 
till  needed.  A  quantity  of  this  powder  was  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  a  tumbler  and  several  hundred  active  mites  placed  in  the  material 
and  mixed  with  it.     At  the  end  of  one  minute  all  mites  were  dead. 

Five  Per  Cent  Carbolic  Acid  Solution  in  Water. — A  quantity  of 
a  five  per  cent  aqueous  solution  was  poured  out  into  a  saucer  and 
several  hundred  mites  placed  on  one  side  and  the  dish  then  tilted 
till  the  mites  were  all  wet,  then  the  liquid  drained  from  them,  the 
mites  remaining  on  the  wet  surface  for  observation.  In  thirty 
seconds  the  movements  were  retarded  and  at  the  end  of  sixty  sec- 
onds all  mites  were  dead. 

One  Per  Cent  Naphthalene  in  Kerosene. — One  per  cent  powdered 
moth  balls  dissolved  in  kerosene  was  tested.  A  quantity  of  this 
fluid  was  poured  in  a  saucer  and  several  hundred  mites  placed  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  saucer,  then  immersed  as  in  the  preceding 
test.     In  thirty   seconds  all  mites  in  the  test  were  dead. 

Crude  Carbolic  Acid. — Pure  crude  carbolic  acid  was  poured  in  a 
saucer  and  several  hundred  mites  placed  on  one  side,  were  immersed 
as  in  the  preceding  test.  In  twenty  seconds  all  mites  in  the  test 
w^ere   dead. 

One  Per  Cent  Kreso  Dip. — This  liquid  was  poured  in  a  saucer  and 
several  hundred  mites  subjected  to  a  bath  as  in  the  preceding  tests. 
At  the  end  of  four  minutes  motions  slowed  and  at  the  end  of  ten 
minutes  all  mites  in  the  test  were  dead. 

Two  Per  Cent  Kreso  Dip. — The  test  was  conducted  as  the  preced- 
ing. At  the  end  of  two  minutes  motion  was  retarded  and  all  mites 
in  test  were  dead  at   the  end   of  four  minutes. 

Ten  Per  Cent  Formaldehyd. — The  test  was  conducted  as  in  the 
preceding.  At  the  end  of  ten  minutes  all  the  mites  in  the  test  were 
dead. 

Pyrethrum. — Lice  covered  with  pyrethrum  powder  were  rendered 
inactive  in  six  to  ten  minutes. 

A  pow^der  prepared  in  this  laboratory  as  follows  killed  lice  in 
thirty  seconds:  Nicotine  V4  ounce,  naphthalene  1  ounce,  standard- 
ized coal  tar  disinfectant  dip  4  ounces.  Sufficient  plaster  of  paris 
was  mixed  with  it  to  make  a  slightly  moist  mixture  and  this  passed 
through  a  fly  screen  and  used  at  once. 

There  was  also  tried  the  following  mixture:  Nicotine  (aqueous 
solution  containing  40  per  cent  nicotine)  solution  40  minims,  water 
4  ounces,  plaster  of  paris  1  pint.  As  soon  as  these  substances 
are  mixed  together  they  heat,  due  to  the  plaster  of  ])aris  being 
converted  back  to  gypsum.  During  this  heating  process  the  powder 
must  be  occasionally  stirred.  This  powder  kills  lice  in  30  seconds 
and  has  been  found  still  effective  after  being  prepared  7  months. 
The  sulphate  of  nicotine  is  also  effective. 

It  was  found  that  though  sulphur  in  solution  is  an  efficient  para- 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES 


79 


siticide,  that  although  paris  green  in  solution  is  a  violent  poison 
because  of  its  arsenic  content  and  although  tobacco  leaves  contain 
nicotine  which,  when  extracted  is  a  parasiticide,  yet  these  agents 
in  their  dry  state  do  not  destroy   mites. 

Naphthalene  or  powdered  moth  balls,  on  account  of  its  vola- 
tile substances  emitted,  killed  all  mites  in   forty-five  minutes. 

Insect  powder  containing  gasoline  and  crude  carbolic  acid,  on 
account  of  the  volatile  substances  given  off,  killed  all  mites  in  one 
minute. 

In  duplicate  tests  solutions  sufficiently  concentrated  killed  in  the 
following  length  of  time:  Crude  carbolic  acid,  twenty  seconds; 
five  per  cent  carbolic  acid,  one  minute;  one  per  cent  naphthalene  in 
kerosene,  thirty  seconds;  one  per  cent  kreso  dip,  ten  minutes,  and 
two  per  cent,  in  four  minutes;  ten  per  cent  formaldehyd,  in  ten 
minutes.  Formaldehyd  is  a  slow  parasiticide  and  must  be  in  quite 
strong  solution.  Its  gas  does  not  destroy  flies.  Free  nicotine  in 
%   per  cent  kills  lice  in  30  seconds. 

In  order  that  parasiticides  be  effective  in  the  destruction  of  the 
mite  they  must  either  be  in  solution  or  be  capable  of  giving  off 
volatile  substances  which  in  themselves  are  destructive. 

Dermanyssus  Gallinae-Dermanyssus  Avium 
Description. — By  referring  to  Fig.  31  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
body  of  this  parasite,  commonly  known  as  the  mite  chigger,  differs 
from  the  Trombidium  holosericeum  in  that  it  is  ovopyriform  in 
shape  instead  of  oval.  The  diameter  of  the  posterior  third  is 
greater  than  that  of  the  anterior  third.  The  abdomen  and  legs 
are  provided  with  rath- 
er short  bristles.  Its 
mouth  parts  are  conical 
in  shape  and  arranged 
for  injuring  the  skin 
and  sucking  blood.  The 
color  varies  according  to 
the  amount  of  blood  con- 
tained within  the  intes- 
tinal tract,  varying  from 
yellow  to  a  yellowish- 
red.  The  free  extremity 
of  the  legs  is  provided 
with  an  apparatus  which 
enables  them  to  hold  on 
or  cling  to  objects  and 
to  move  about  rapidly. 

Life  History. — The  fe- 
male, like  the  female  of 
the  preceding  genus,  lays 
her  eggs  in  the  cracks 
and  crevices  and  filth  of 
the  floors  and  nests, 
where  they  hatch  out  in 
a  few  days,  if  the  temperature  be  favorable, 
asexual  larva  goes  through  several  moults 
the  adult,  sexual,  eight-legged  parasite. 

Symptoms  of  Dermanyssus  Infestation. — This  parasite  lives 
in  the  poultry  houses  and  dove-cotes,  hiding'  in  the  straw  of 
nests,  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  roosts,  and  otlier  x)laces  of 


Fig.    31.    Dermanyssus  Gali.inae. 
a,    conical-shaped    rostrum;    b,    palpus. 


The  young,  six-legged 
finally  maturing  into 


80 


P0T7.TRY  DISEASES 


conceal  nient  in  the  daytime.  It  is  the  most  common  and  most 
injurious  of  mites  and  is  present  in  every  poultry  house  un- 
less it  is  kept  unusually  clean.  It  comes  out  at  night  and 
makes  its  attack.  Few  of  these  parasites  are  to  be  found  on 
the  birds  (chickens  and  pigeons)  in  the  daytime,  but  at  night 
they  may  be  numerous.  Birds  so  harassed  at  night  cannot 
sleep  or  rest  and  soon  become  emaciated.  The  laying  hens 
will  leave  their  nests  and  even  cease  laying.  Birds  may  be 
found  dead  under  the  roosts  in  the  mornings  from  the  attacks 
of  these  mites. 

These  parasites  may  also  attack  horses  and  other  animals 
kept  close  to  the  quarters  of  infested  birds ;  they  cause  irrita- 
tion, the  animal  scratches,  rubs,  and  unable  to  rest  at  night, 
becomes  thin  in  flesh,  and  weak.  Some  persons  are  annoyed 
by  them. 

Treatment. — The  same  as  has  been  outlined  for  lice  and 
chiggers.     (See  page  72.) 

FLEAS  AFFECTING  BIRDS 

One  genus  and  species  of  Hea  parastic  upon  the  chickens 
is  known,  technically,  as  the  Pulex  avium.  It  is  far  more 
common  in  the  southern  half  of  the  Ignited  States  than  it  is 
in  states  farther  north. 

Pulex   Avium 

Description. — This  is  the  common  chicken  flea.  It  resembles  to 
some  extent  the  flea  that  infests  dogs-  and  man.  however,  a  micro- 
scopic study  shows  it  to  be  a  distinct  species.     Fig.   32   illustrates 

this  parasite.  It  is  provided  with 
antennae  or  jointed  feelers.  In 
the  larval  state  its  mouth  parts 
are  arranged  for  mastication  and 
in  the  adult  for  wounding  the 
skin  and  sucking  blood.  It  is  flat- 
tened laterally,  the  thorax  being  a 
trifle  deeper  than  the  head  and 
is  provided  with  three  pairs  of 
legs,  of  which  the  posterior  pair 
are   longer   than   the   others,   giv- 


FiG.  32.  Pulex  Avium. 

A,   antennae;    B,   stylet;    C,   booklets 
on   free  extremity   of  leg. 


great  power  to 
extremity  of  the 

with  two  hook- 
In     color     the 

light     to     dark 


ing    the    insect 

jump.     The  free 

legs   is   provided 

lets     or     claws. 

chicken     flea     is 

brown. 
Life  History. — The  female  lays  about  twenty  brown  oval  eggs  in 
some  dirty,  dusty  place,  such  as  the  floor,  cracks,  crevices  or  nests. 
These  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days  (six  to  twelve)  if  the  temperature 
be  warm,  and  from  them  come  wormlike  larvae  composed  of  thirteen 
segments  each.  The  mouth  parts  are  arranged  for  mastication. 
The  larval  stage  lasts  about  eleven  days:  they  then  pass  through 
the  pupa  stage  in  a  tough  brown  cocoon.   The  pupa  stage  lasts  about 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES  81 

fourteen    days,    when    the   six-legged    adult    flea   emerges    from   the 
cocoon. 

Chicken  Flea   Infestation 

Sfjniptoins. — In  an  outl)reak  of  flea  infestation  stndied  l)y 
the  anthoi'  during  the  sunnner  of  1911,  tlie  presence  of  the 
fleas  in  the  flock  was  first  noted  because  of  the  insects  attack- 
ing persons  who  entered  the  hen  house.  Investigation  reveahed 
the  presence  of  fleas  in  large  num])ers. 

It  is  noteworthy  in  this  outbreak  that  all  the  lice  and  chig- 
gers  disappeared  from  the  flock,  although  the  chickens  in  this 
flock  had  been  troubled  by  these  parasites,  more  or  less,  during 
the  three  years  preceding.  Although  fleas  irritate  the  skin 
and  suck  blood,  no  noticeable  effect  on  these  birds  Avas  noted 
by  the  OAvner,  Perhaps,  because  it  being  summer,  the  birds 
AA'ere  largely  out  doors  and  under  favorable  conditions  as  to 


Fig.    33.     Sarcopsylla   Gallinacea. 
1,   male;   2,   female;   3,  young. 

health.    Symptoms  similar  to  those  produced  by  lice  have  been 
recorded  in  other  cases. 

Treatment:  Eradication. — Dipping  the  hens  in  any  of  the 
folloAA^ing  solutions,  five  per  cent  creolin,  five  per  cent  kreso 
dip,  or  five  per  cent  zenoleum,  is  effective  in  ridding  the  birds 
of  fleas  and  preventing  their  reinfestation  for  a  short  time. 
A  dusting  powder,  used  as  directed  under  the  discussion  of 
lice,  may  also  be  employed  Avitli  success.  Do  not  neglect  to 
stop  reinfestation  ])y  treating  the  premises  the  same  as  di- 
rected for  lice.     (See  page  72.) 

Sarcopsylla  Gallinacea — Stick  Tight  Flea  (Jigger) 

This  is  another  variety  of  hen  flea.  It  has  been  studied  in 
North  Carolina.  The  accompanying  photomicrograph,  Fig.  33,  shows 
a  female,  a  male  and  a  young  one.  It  will  be  noted  by  comparing 
it  with  the  Pulex  avium  that  it  is  much  shorter  and  different  in 


82 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


shape.     These  fleas  are  found  particularly  in  the  sandy  soil.     They 
are  commonly  known  as  the  stick-tight  fleas. 

Description. —The  female  is  0.75  mm.  to  1.  mm.  in  length  and  the 
male  a  trifle  shorter.  Its  posterior  legs  are  much  longer  than  the 
anterior  pair.  The  posterior  angles  of  the  metathoracic  scales  are 
angled.  The  eyes  and  antennae  are  located  in  the  posterior  part  of 
the   head.     It  is  brown  to  brownish-black  in  color. 

Habitat. — It  lives  in  shady  places,  under  old  houses,  on  earthen 
floors,  in  filth.  It  is  a  veritable  pest  to  old  birds  and  especially  to 
young  chickens  and  turkeys. 

Tyife  Historii. — It  lays  its  eggs  in  dirty  filthy  corners  or  sand  or 
while  on  the  bird,  under  which  conditons  the  eggs  roll  off  on  the 
ground,  where  they  hatch  out  and  go  through  the  changes  which 
bring  them  to  the  adult  stage.  The  eggs  are  oval  in  shape  and 
white  in  color,  while  the  eggs  of  the  Pulex  avium  are  brown. 

Conditions  Produced.— It  does  not  have  a  tendency  to  hop  like 
the  Pulex  avium  but  implants  itself  on  the  heads  and  necks  of 
chickens  and  especially  the  young.  With  its  powerful  proboscis 
it  pierces  the  skin  and  sucks  the  blood  and  remains  in  one  position, 
burying  itself  in  the  upper  layers  of  the  skin  producing  irritation 
and  inflammation.  When  removed  we  find  they  may  jump  like 
species  of  the  pulex. 

Treatment. — Use  louse  powder  or  grease  the  heads  and  necks  of 
the  young  chicks  with  lard  in  which  has  been  mixed  a  small  quantity 
of  sulphur  or  saturate  the  head  and  neck  with  gasoline,  being  careful 
not  to  get  the  gasoline  in  the  eyes.  Saturate  the  infested  prem- 
ises, including  runs,  with  kerosene. 


TICK   INFESTATION 

The  chicken  tick  is  the  Argas  miniatus.     It  is  common  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  United  States. 

Ar^as  Miniatus 

Description. — The  body  is  flat  and  thin.     It  has  an  overreaching 
dorsal  surface  that  hides  the  mouth  parts.     The   mouth   parts   are 

provided  with  mandibles,  which  have 
hook-like  denticles  at  the  free  extremity 
and  a  hypostome  provided  with  six  rows 
of  irregularly-arranged,  toothlike  denti- 
cles. With  this  apparatus  it  holds  on  to 
its  host.  By  the  side  of  this  apparatus 
there  is,  on  either  side,  a  palpus,  an  ar- 
ticulated, fingerlike  structure  taking  the 
place  of  antennae  as  found  in  the  insect 
parasites.  This  tick  is  a  blood  sucker. 
The  engorged  female  is  nearly  one-half 
inch  long.  Fig.  34  is  a  drawing  of  a  full- 
grown  female,  taken  from  a  hen  in 
southern  Texas. 

Life  History. — The  engorged  female 
drops  from  the  hen  to  the  ground,  and, 
finding  a  hiding  place  under  some  object, 
lays  her  eggs,  which,  if  the  weather  be  warm,  hatch  in  a  few  days 
into  the  six-legged  asexual  state,  l^pon  gaining  access  to  chickens 
it  begins  to  draw  blood  and  molts,  finally  reaching  the  eight-legged, 
sexual  state.     It  is  now  ready  to  again  reproduce. 


Fig.    34.     Argas  Miniatus. 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES  83 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — Large  miui])ers  of  ticks  cause 
trouble  similar  to  that  caused  by  numerous  lice.  The  parasite, 
being  a  blood-sucker,  robs  the  host  of  considerable  blood  and 
causes  it  irritation.  The  birds  do  not  thrive,  sitting  hens 
leave  their  nests,  laying  hens  cease  laying,  young  birds  make 
but  little  growth.     Badly  infested  birds  may  die. 

Treatment. — Combat  the  parasite  with  sanitary  measures, 
as  outlined  for  the  prevention  of  lice.  (See  page  72.) 

,  THE  BEDBUG  OF  POULTRY 

The  chicken  bug  or  dove  cote  Inig  is  known  as  the  Acanthia 
inodora.  It  is  often  found  around  unclean  roosts  and  dove 
cotes.  It  is  closely  allied  to  the  bedbug,  from  which  it  requires 
a  microscopic  study  to  differentiate  it. 

Acanthia  Inodora 

Description. — Fig.  35  illustrates  a  specimen  obtained  from  an 
infestation  in  Colorado.  It  will  be  noted  that  it  is  provided  with 
long  antennae,  which  possess  long  joints  or  articles.  Its  head  is 
rather  narrow  and  it  has  prominent  eyes.  The  thorax  is  crescent- 
shaped  on  the  anterior  border  and  is  much  wider  than  the  head. 
It  iz  provided  with  three  pairs  of  legs.  Its  abdomen,  like  the  ab- 
domen of  the  louse,  is  segmented  and  is  practically  destitute  of  hair. 

Life  History. — The  acanthia  inodora  lays  its  eggs  in  the  filth, 
where  they  soon  Latch,  if  the  weather  be  warm,  and  rapidly  de- 
velop to  the  adult  state. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — This  bug  is  cjuite  a  pest  in 
^lexico  and  some  parts  of  the  southern  United  States.  At 
times  they  are  found  in  great  numbers 
swarming  over  the  roosts  and  nests, 
specking  the  eggs  with  their  excre- 
ment, attacking  the  hosts  at  night  and 
sucking  their  blood.  The  conditions,  as 
a  result,  are  the  same  as  is  the  case  in 
any  other  form  of  infestation  by  ex- 
ternal parasites. 

Treatment. — Similar  to  the  preced- 
ing. The  chicken  bug  is  at  times  a  for- 
midable foe,  even  invading  dwellings 
and  proving  more  troublesome  than  the  Vt*^ 

connnon    bedbug    {Simex   Jectulariits).     fig.  35.  Acanthia  Inodor.\. 
They  begin  to  appear  about  the  middle 

of  April,  and  at  times  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  chickens  en- 
tirely out  of  doors. 

The  bugs  may  live  for  many  months  on  the  filth  about  a 
dove  cote  or  henhouse  and  the  disinfection  must  be  most  thor- 
ouo^h  to  eradicate  them. 


84  POULTRY  DISEASES 

BEE  STINGS 

Ynung  ducklings  attempting  to  catch  bees  where  bee  gums 
are  set  on  the  ground  are  sometimes  attacked  and  so  severely 
stung  that  many  die.  Severe  swelling,  as  in  other  animals, 
results  from  the  stings. 

FUNGI  AFFECTING  BIRDS 

Three  harmful  fungi  affect  chickens.  One  kind  affects  the 
mouth,  another  the  skin  and  the  third  the  lungs.  They  are 
more  or  less  common  in  this  country. 

Thrush— Aphtha— Sore   Mouth 

This  is  a  condition  affecting  the  mouth  and  is  due  to  a  low- 
grade  fungus  called  the  Oidium  albicans  {Saccharomyces  albi- 
cans). This  consists  of  h^n^h^e  (fine  thread-like  processes) 
which  in  some  instances  show  well  marked  chains  of  cells.  It 
reproduces  by  forming  round  or  ovoid  spores. 

Symptoms. — E berth  has  reported  a  case  in  a  bird  that  was 
emaciated,  dull  and  died  in  convulsions.  On  the  inner  lining 
or  mucous  membrane  of  the  first  portion  of  the  esophagus 
whitish  to  brownish  yellow  deposits  adhering  to  the  mucous 
surface  were  observed.  These  were  found  to  be  composed  of 
the  spores  and  filaments  of  this  fungus.  It  has  also  been 
reported  as  occurring  in  turkeys. 

Treatment. — If  the  patches  can  be  seen  it  is  best  to  cauter- 
ize the  area  with  stick  of  lunar  caustic  (molded  nitrate  of 
silver).  Intestinal  antiseptics  are  also  indicated  such  as  are 
given  in  other  intestinal  disorders  as  fowl  cholera.  (See 
page  110.) 

Tinea  Favosa — Honey-Comb  Ringworm 

This  malady  is  due  to  another  low-grade  fungus,  the  Aclio- 
rion  schoenleinii.  The  fungus  somewhat  resembles  the  Oidium 
albicans  appearing  in  hyph^e  or  threads  and  reproducing  by 
spore  formation. 

The  hyphffi  are  three  to  five  microns  thick,  forming  rami- 
fying branches  with  tapering  ends.  The  hyphte  are  matted 
together,  forming  mycelia  or  mat-like  masses.  Spores  varying 
from  three  to  six  microns  in  diameter  are  found  in  the  meshes 
of  this  mycelia.     These  spores  are  egg,  ball  or  biscuit  shaped. 

The  fungus  may  be  grown  on  artificial  media.  Upon  arti- 
ficial media  it  appears  as  a  moss-like  growth.  It  grows  best 
at  twenty-five  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Symptoms. — This  disease  has  been  called  favus,  baldness 
and  white  comb.  It  is  a  disease  tliat  is  highly  contagious  and 
attacks  the  comb,  face  and  neck.     If  not  treated,  l)ut  allowed 


EXTERNAL  PARASITES  85 

to  spread  and  go  ou  uuinterrupted,  it  may  later  extend  to  the 
body. 

The  disease  first  appears  on  the  com!)  or  face  as  whitish  or 
light-gray,  small,  roimdisli  patches,  which  vary  from  the  size, 
of  a  millet  seed  to  a  half-inch  in  diameter.  Later  these  patches 
may  coalesce  and  form  large  areas. 

The  diseased  area  is  covered  with  a  scale  which  may  be 
depressed  in  the  center  and  turned  np  at  the  edges,  giving 
it  a  cup-like  shape.  In  the  course  of  four  to  six  weeks  the 
crusts  may  be  one-fourth  inch  in  thickness. 

The  feathers  become  dry,  erect,  brittle  and  break  off  at  the 
surface,  leaving  large  denuded  areas.  A  disagreeable  odor 
is  given  off  by  the  diseased  areas  w^hich  has  been  likened  to 
that  of  moldy  cheese.  As  the  disease  progresses  the  bird  loses 
its  appetite,  "becomes  gradually  emaciated,  weakens  and  finally 
dies. 

Treatment. — In  the  early  stage  this  disease  yields  to  treat- 
ment readily.  The  crusts  should  be  soaked  with  soapy  water 
containing  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  creolin,  liquor  cresolis, 
kreso  dip,  carbolic  acid,  or  similar  antiseptic.  The  fluid  should 
find  its  way  to  every  part  affected.  The  premises  should  be 
disinfected  as  for  lice  or  other  parasites. 

Pneumomycosis — Aspergillosis 

The  third  fungus  disease  affecting  birds  is  usually  due  to 
the  Aspergillus  fumigatus,  an  organism  similar  to  the  com- 
mon green  molds.  It  affects  the  lungs  and  is  discussed  under 
''Diseases  of  the  Organs  of  Respiration."     (See  page  172.) 

MYCOSIS  OF  PIGEONS 

This  disease  is  caused  by  the  Aspergillus  glaucus.  The 
skin  is  covered  wuth  thin  yellowish  crusts  which  may  be  lo- 
cated on  any  part  of  the  body.  The  crusts  give  off  an  of- 
fensive odor.     The  birds  may  finally  die  of  exhaustion. 

WHITE  SCALE  OF  THE  COMB,    FACE  AND  WATTLES 

There  is  a  condition  among  fowls  which  attacks  the  comb, 
face  and  wattles.  The  disease  manifests  itself  as  very  thin, 
white  scales  and  in  some  respects  sinuilates  white  comb  due 
to  a  fungus  but  in  these  cases  laboratory  examinations  have 
failed  to  reveal  any  fungus.  The  comb,  face  and  wattles  be- 
come pale.  The  disease  may  run  pretty  well  through  a  ilock 
and  suddenly  disappear  spontaneously. 

The  best  results  are  attained  with  a  sul]^hur  ointment,  five 
parts  flowers  of  sulphur  to  95  parts  vaselin,  applied  once  a 
day  to  the  affected  parts. 


86  POULTRY  DISEASES 

BALDNESS   OF   CANARIES 

Baldness  sometimes  is  caused  hy  mites  or  lice.  A  loss  of 
feathers  about  the  head  may  also  indicate  old  age  or  even 
general  debility.  At  the  natural  time  of  molting  the  growth 
of  feathers  may  be  aided  by  warmth  and  a  well  regulated 
diet.  In  addition  to  the  usual  food,  twice  a  week  give  a  little 
bread  moistened  with  milk  which  has  been  dusted  with  a 
mixture  of  two  parts  sulphur  and  one  part  potassium  chlorate. 
At  the  same  intervals  rub  a  little  carbolized  petrolatum  on 
the  bald  spots. 


SECTIOX  IV 

INTERNAL  PARASITES 

Parasites  infesting  the  intestinal  canal  of  fowls  are  har- 
bored by  most  fowls,  and  serious  infestations  by  these  para- 
sites are  by  no  means  rare.  These  parasites  are  commonly 
spoken  of  as  worms.  Other  internal  parasites,  such  as  gape- 
worm  and  air-sac  mite,  while  not  so  commoix  as  the  intestinal 
worms,  are  by  no  means  unknown,  and  have  the  same  pos- 
sil)ilities  of  serious  infestation. 

Intestinal  parasites  in  small  numbers  infest  all  fowls  with- 
out doing  perceptible  harm,  but  there  is  always  the  possibility 
that  conditions  for  their  propagation  may  become  so  favorable 
as  to  turn  the  mildest  infestation  into  a  devastating  para- 
sitism. Indeed,  this  very  thing  has  occured  numberless  times, 
and  not  a  few  flocks  have  been  entirely  destroyed  by  it.  The 
death  of  any  bird  from  the  effects  of  internal  parasites  should 
be  looked  upon  with  apprehension. 

Flocks  infested  with  large  numbers  of  round  worms  are 
unprofitable  in  the  extreme.  The  birds  are  unthrifty,  appear 
unkempt  and  suffer  from  diarrhea  and  constipation.  Young 
fowls  are  most  severely  affected. 

Internal  parasites  may  be  classed  under  four  orders,  as 
follows :  Nematodes,  or  round  worms ;  Cestodes,  or  ribbon- 
shaped  segmented  worms;  Acanthocephala,  or  thorn-headed 
worms;  Trematoda,  or  flat  leaf -like  worms,  called  flukes. 

IMPORTANT   ROUND  WORMS 

Kound  worms  are  the  commonest  of  internal  parasites ;  they 
may  be  found  in  the  ceca  of  nearly  all  fowls,  and  usually  in 
other  portions  of  the  bowel.  When  numerous  they  may  seri- 
ously interfere  Avith  digestion  and  nutrition,  and  by  their  ir- 
ritation of  the  intestine  cause  a  stubborn  diarrhea.  Rarely 
they  become  so  plentiful  in  the  intestine  as  to  wholly  obstruct 
it. 

The  round  worms  include  four  important  internal  parasites 
of  birds ;  the  large,  round,  intestinal  worm ;  the  small,  round 
intestinal  worm ;  the  gizard  worm ;  and  the  gapeworm,  be- 
sides a  number  of  rare,  or  for  other  reasons,  unimportant 
worms,  all  of  which  will  1)e  described  in  turn. 

Ascaris  Inflexa 
This  parasite,  sometimes  called  the  Ileteralis  perspicillum, 
is  commonly  known  as  the  large,  round  worm.    It  is  very  com- 


S8 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


mon,  having  been  found  by  the  author  in  twenty-four  out  of 
eighty-seven  autopsies. 

Description. — This  intestinal  parasite  is  round  in  shape  and 
whitish-yellow  to  white  in  color,  varying  from  one  to  two  inches 
in  length.  There  are  two  sexes,  male  and  female,  the  female  being 
considerably  the  larger.  Fig.  36  shows  the  actual  size  of  the 
male  and  the  female  specimens  from  which  this  drawing  was  made. 
Some  few  specimens  are  much  larger  than  the  ones  shown. 

Life  History. — The  adult  worms  deposit  large  numbers  of  eggs 
in  the  intestines  of  the  infested  fowl.  These  eggs  are  very  minute, 
microscopic  in  size  and  can  be  seen  only  when  examined  under  a 
high  power  microscope.  They  pass  out  of  the  intestine  of  the  bird 
with  the  droppings,  are  very  resistant  to  dryness  and  ordinarilly 
do  not  hatch  until  taken  into  the  alimentary  tract  of  another  fowl. 
There  is  some  evidence  that  eggs  may  hatch  in  the  droppings  under 


38. 


Fig.    36.  Fig.    37.  Fig. 

Fig.  36.     Ascaris  Inflexa   (Natural  Size). 
A,    female;    B,   male. 

Fig.  37.     Heterakis  Papillosa   (Natural  Size). 

A,  female;  B,  male. 

Fig.    38.      Heterakis  Papillosa,  Head   Extremity    (Magnified). 

A,  mouth  parts;    B,   esophagus. 


certain  conditions.  Infestation  is  brought  about  by  means  of  food 
or  drink,  which  has  been  contaminated  with  egg-laden  droppings. 
Thus  one  affected  bird  may  infest  an  entire  flock.  The  younger 
worms  are  found  toward  the  gizzard  end  of  the  bowel  and  the  larger 
ones  farther  down  the  small  intestines.  The  development  from 
newly  hatched  larvae  to  full  grown  males  and  females  is  attained  in 
from  three  to  four  weeks.  If  infestation  has  lasted  the  required 
length  of  time  the  droppings  of  an  infested  fowl  will  be  seen  to 
harbor  great  numbers  of  tiny  worm  eggs. 

Symptoms  of  Iiifcslalion. — These  parasites  harm  the  host 
by  ingesting  food  during  its  digestion  l)y  the  host,  thus  rob- 
bing it  to  a  certain  extent.  A  few  worms  may  produce  no 
noticeable  effect  upon  tlie  health  of  the  bird,  Imt  if  present 
in  large  numbers  they  cause  serious  trou])le.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  excrementitious  (waste)  matter  given  off  by 
these  and  other  intestinal  worms  is  poisonous.  It  is  absor])ed 
and  has  a  deleterious  constitutional  eft'ect,  similar  to  tliat  of 


INTERNAL  PARASITES  89 

like  infestations  by  parasites  in  the  larger  animals  and  in  man. 
At  times  the  worms  are  found  in  large  masses,  partially 
obstructing-  the  bowel,  causing  constipation,  and  possibly  irri- 
tation suificient  to  set  ui)  inflammation.     There  mav  be  a  loss 

1-  M^ 

of  appetite,  unthrifty  condition,  unkempt  appearance  of  plum- 
age, dullness,  languor  and  drooping  \vings,  emaciation,  loss 
of  color  f]*om  the  comb  and  mucous  membranes  followed  by 
death  in  a  few  weeks. 

By  careful  examination  of  the  contents  of  the  digestive  tract 
of  the  birds  killed  for  food  purposes  the  poultry  raiser  may 
keep  informed  as  to  whether  this  form  of  parasitism  is  present 
in  his  flock.  If  these  worms  are  present  in  members  of  the 
flock  close  observation  will  occasionally  discover  them  passed 
in  the  feces. 

Treatment. — It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  yard  and  henhouse 
clean,  lime  scattered  on  the  floor  and  about  the  yard,  and 
the  water  for  the  birds  kept  in  a  clean  fountain  and  the  food 
in  clean  troughs,  made  for  the  purpose,  and  disinfected  daily, 
and  so  constructed  that  birds  cannot  step  into  them.  If  at 
all  possible,  birds  should  be  moved  upon  new  ground.  The 
parasites'  eggs  in  the  droppings  removed  from  the  henhouse 
may  be  destroyed  by  mixing  the  manure  with  unslaked  lime. 

The  birds  may  be  given  one  teaspoonful  of  turpentine  fol- 
lowed by  a  tablespoonful  of  olive  oil.  If  the  crop  is  full  the 
dose  of  turpentine  should  be  doubled.  Five  to  ten  grain  doses 
of  areca  nut  is  a  good  treatment.  The  areca  nut  can  be  mixed 
with  soft  feed  and  fed  from  a  clean  trough ;  it  acts  as  a  ca- 
thartic as  well  as  a  parasiticide.  One  grain  doses  of  thj^nol 
are  an  excellent  treatment  for  round  worms.  Two  grains  of 
santonin  for  each  bird  is  likewise  an  effective  treatment. 

Heterakis   Papillosa 

This  is  another  very  common  worm  and  is  usually  found 
in  the  ceca  or  blind  guts.  The  author  has  found  it  present 
in  about  fifty  per  cent  of  the  adult  birds  autopsied  in  his  in- 
vestigation work  among  poultry  during  the  past  ten  years. 
It  is  spoken  of  as  the  small  round  worm  by  poultrymen. 

Bescription. — This  worm  is  much  smaller  than  the  Ascaris  inflexa, 
being  only  about  one-fourth  to  one-half  inch  long.  It  is  white  in 
color.  Fig.  37  illustrates  the  male  and  female,  natural  size.  Fig.  38 
illustrates  the  head  parts,  magnified  several  times,  and  Fig.  39  the 
caudal  or  posterior  end  of  the  male,  magnified  several  diameters. 

Ijife  History. — So  far  as  known  the  life  history  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  Ascaris  inflexa.  While  the  latter  infests  the  small  in- 
testines as  stated  above,  this  one  is  found  principally  in  the  ceca 
or  blind  guts. 

Symptoms  of  hifestaiiou. — "When  present  in  large  numbers 


90 


POULTKY  DISEASES 


the  small  round  intestinal  worm  of  chickens  {Ileterakis  papil- 
losa)  produces  considerable  irritation  and  results  in  an  un- 
thrifty condition  of  the  affected  bird.  It  robs  the  host  of 
nutrients,  as  does  the  Ascaris. 

Treatment. — Sanitary  measures  for  the  prevention  and  erad- 
ication of  this  parasitism  and  directions  for  its  treatment  are 
the  same  as  for  Ascans  inflexa.     (See  page  89.) 

Powdered  areca  nut,  powdered  pomegranate  root  bark,  tur- 
pentine, gasoline,  iron  sulphate,  and  tobacco,  given  both  alone 
and  in  various  combinations  in  the  form  of  pills  or  mixed 
with  food,  are  effective. 

Tobacco  stems  when  finely  chopped,  steeped  in  water  for 
two  lumrs,  and  the  stems  and  liquid  mixed  with  the  mash 


Fig.    39.    Heterakis  Papillosa,  Tail  Extremity  (Greatly  Magnified). 
A,   spiculae;   B,    preanal   sucker;    C,   papilla. 


are  readily  eaten  by  the  fowls  and  give  uniformly  good  re- 
sults. The  fowls  which  are  very  badly  infested  with  round- 
worms are  in  most  instances  entirely  freed  from  these  para- 
sites after  two  doses. 

Spiroptera  Hamulosa 

This  is  the  gizzard  worm  of  chickens.    Specimens  have  been 

sent  to  the  author's  laboratory  from  ^Missouri  only. 

Description. — The  male  measures  about  one-half  inch  In  length 
and  the  female  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  Fig.  40  illustrates 
the  worms,  natural  size. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — The  economic  significance  of  this 
parasitism  is  due  chiefly  to  the  loss  of  weight  and  the  stunted 
growth  which  it  causes.  The  affected  birds  become  anemic, 
emaciated,  extremely  lazy  and  have  a  ravenous  appetite.  Tlie 
worms  produce  nodules  in  the  walls  of  the  gizzard.  The  birds 
become  infested  from  eating  food  contaminated  or  soiled  with 
the  excrement  of  infested  l)irds  or  by  taking  in  young,  imma- 
ture worms  through  soiled  food  and  water. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  is  difficult  owing  to  the   fact 


INTERNAL  PARASITES  .  91 

that  the  worms  are  iiuhedded  in  tumefactions  in  the  walls  of 
the  gizzard.  Give  tnrpentine  and  olive  oil  as  directed  for  the 
treatment  of  Ascaris  inHexa  infestations.  The  treatment 
shonld  be  repeated  three  or  four  times  at  inter- 
vals of  one  week. 

Eradication  of  Worms. — A  campaign  to  con- 
trol the  round  worms  of  all  kinds  infesting  the 
intestinal  tract  involves  both  treatment  of  the 
fowls  in  order  to  expel  the  worms,  and  disinfec- 
tion and  sanitation  of  the  coops  and  I'uiiways  to      Fig.  40    Spir- 

^  .  '-  OPTERA      HAMU- 

])revent  reintestation.  i^osa  (natural 

Birds    do    not    like  mash    in    which    there     is         ^  ^^^^'^    ^ 

,  m  A,    male;    B, 

nicoTporated  turpentnie,  or  areca  nut.  lo-  female. 
bacco  stems  finely  chopped  and  steeped  in 
hot  water  for  two  hours  and  this  mixed  with  mash,  gives 
uniformly  good  results  and  is  readily  eaten  liy  the  fowls. 
Experiments  in  this  lal)oratory  show  that  badly  infested 
birds  expel  large  numbers  of  worms  and  upon  post 
mortem  examination  are  entirely  freed  from  the  infestation. 
Two  doses  should  be  given  three  days  apart.  For  each  fifty 
fowls,  one-half  pound  finely  chopped  tobacco  stems  should  be 
used.  The  birds  should  be  fed  this  mixture  in  the  morning, 
or  on  an  empty  crop.  In  the  evening  give  to  each  fifty  fowls 
five  ounces  of  epsom  salts  dissolved  in  water  and  this  water 
mixed  with  mash.  Do  not  give  any  other  feed  for  that  day. 
For  chicks  give  doses  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  birds. 
This  treatment  will  cost  about  one  cent  for  each  ten  birds. 

The  treated  birds  should  be  moved  to  yards  and  houses  free 
from  infestation.  In  yards  where  infested  fowls  have  been 
kept  it  has  been  found,  upon  microscopic  examination,  that 
the  soil  may  be  infested  by  the  eggs  of  the  round  intestinal 
worms  to  a  depth  of  two  inches  below  the  surface.  For  dis- 
infecting the  yards  a  corrosive  sublimate  solution  1  to  1,000 
may  be  used.  This  is  applied  by  aid  of  a  sprinkling  can  after 
all' rubbish  has  been  swept  up  and  removed.  One  gallon  of 
the  solution  should  be  used  for  each  ten  square  feet. 

The  houses  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  every  square 
inch  saturated  with  the  corrosive  sublimate  solution.  The 
litter  removed  from  the  yard  and  house  should  be  hauled  out 
and  scattered  on  a  field  used  for  raising  crops  and  remote  from 
the  fowls. 

iMercuric  chlorid  (corrosive  sublimate)  is  poisonous  and  care 
must  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  birds  to  di-ink  it  or  the  food 
or  water  to  become  contaminated  with  it.  After  the  feed  and 
water  troughs  have  been  thoroughly  scrubbed  inside  and  out 
with  the  solution,  they  must  be  rinsed  with  clear  water. 


02  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Syngamus  Trachealis 

This  parasite  is  sometimes  called  the  Sclerostoma  synganius, 
and  popularly  the  forked  worm  or  gapeworm.  There  is  an- 
other worm  slifrhtly  larger  than  this  one  that  infests  the 
bronchi  and  trachea  of  ducks,  swans  and  geese.  It  is  called  the 
Siingarn  us  hronchiaJis. 

Description. — The  male  is  very  much  smaller  than  the  female, 
upon  which  it  exists  as  a  parasite.  Fig.  41  illustrates  these  worms 
in  copulation  as  they  are  always  found.  A,  illustrates  a  section  of 
mucous  membrane.  B,  the  male,  which,  it  will  be  noted,  is  much 
thinner  than  the  female  and  scarcely  one-fourth  inch  long:  and  C, 
the  female,  about  one  inch  in  length.  The  mouth 
parts  are  surrounded  by  a  capsular  arrangement  by 
which  it  holds  firmly  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
trachea  (windpipe)  or  bronchi.  The  mouth  parts 
are  provided  with  chitinous  teeth,  with  which  they 
wound  the  mucous  membrane;  from  this  wound  they 
suck  blood. 

Life  History. — The  female  produces  eggs  which  es- 
cape from  her  body  only  after  she  is  expelled  from 
the  host  and  her  body  decomposed.  The  embryos 
thus  escaping  from  the  decomposing  and  disintegrat- 
FiG.  41.  Syn-  ^^S  female  are  taken  up  by  earth  worms.  Thus, 
GAMus  Trache-  chicks  drinking  contaminated  water,  or  eating  these 
ALis  (NATURAL  infestcd  earth  worms,  in  turn  become  infested;  or  if 
^^^^^'  the  chick  should  pick  up  an  expelled  female  contain- 

niembrane'^  "of  ^^^§^  ^^^®  mature  eggs,  the  embryos  would  be  liberated 
trachea;  in  the  stomach  of  the  chick,  in  which  case  they  mi- 
H,  male;  C,  grate  to  the  air  sacs  and  air  passages  and  grow  to 
female.  maturity. 

Ellers  has  produced  the  disease  by  feeding  embryos 
fresh  from  the  trachea  of  infested  birds.  It  would  therefore  appear 
that  an  intermediate  host  is  not  required,  but  that  a  bird  may  be- 
come infested  by  picking  up  an  expelled  worm  or  some  of  the 
tracheal  discharge  containmg  the  embryos. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — "Wild  as  well  as  tame  birds  are 
susceptible  to  gapeworm  infestation  (chickens,  turkeys,  pheas- 
ants, partridges,  pea-fowl,  magpies,  black  storks,  starlings, 
crows,  parrots,  swifts,  woodpeckers  and  martins  all  have  been 
reported  as  having  become  infested). 

The  poultryman's  trouble  is  usually  with  young  chicks  and 
turkeys.  The  small,  immature  gapeworins  or  eggs  containing 
the  embryos  find  th(Mr  way  to  the  intestinal  tract  of  the  young 
bird  as  described  above,  and  from  the  intestine  they  migrate 
to  the  trachea  (wind  pipe)  and  its  branches  and  attach  them- 
selves, where,  by  growing  in  size,  they  gradually  o])struct  the 
passage  of  air  to  the  lungs.  As  a  result,  the  bii'd  finds  ])r(^ath- 
ing  difficult  and  after  a  while  gasps  for  breath,  extending 
its  head  high  into  the  air,  finally  becoming  asphyxiated.  T^su- 
ally  a  liiinp  may  be  found  by  feeling  along  the  trachea,  if 
the  worms  be  lodged  in   that  part  of  the  trachea,  which  is 


INTERNAL  PARASITES  93 

palpable.  The  siek  bird  coughs  and  shakes  its  head  frequently. 
I\Iasses  of  viseid  mueus  are  expelled  from  the  mouth.  The 
bii'ds  frequently  open  their  mouths  and  make  a  wheezing  noise. 
Their  appetite  remains  excellent  but  emaciation  soon  develops. 
In  later  stages  the  appetite  disappears  and  the  feathers  are 
ruffled.  A  definite  diagnosis  may  always  be  made  upon  au- 
topsy hy  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  worms  in  the  trachea, 
where,  if  present,  they  will  l)e  found  in  ]^airs  attached  to  the 
mucous  mend^rane. 

Prevention. — Hatch  the  eggs  in  an  incubator.  Do  not  allow 
the  chicks  to  run  out  in  wet  grass,  where  they  may  find  earth 
worms  or  contaminated  water.  Feed  only  in  containers  which 
are  constructed  for  the  i:)urpose  and  kept  clean. 

Treatment. — By  grasping  the  bird  in  the  left  hand  and  forc- 
ing its  mouth  open  a  doubled  horse  hair  may  be  run  down 
the  trachea  and  by  twisting  and  again  withdrawing,  the  worms 
may  usually  be  dislodged.  Gentle  pressure  over  the  region  of 
the  mass  may  so  injure  the  worms  as  to  cause  them  to  loosen 
their  hold  and  be  expelled  by  the  bird  during  the  coughing 
which  this  causes.  Care  must  be  exercised  lest  the  trachea  be 
injured.  A  feather  from  which  all  barbs  except  the  tip  have 
been  removed  may  be  dipped  in  turpentine,  forced  down  the 
trachea,  and  when  the  tip  has  passed  the  mass  of  worms  it 
mav  be  twisted  as  it  is  withdrawn.  This  usually  results  in 
their  removal.  By  referring  to  Fig.  2,  the  location  of  the 
opening  of  the  trachea  (34)  through  the  larynx  may  be  seen. 
The  Syngamus  lironchialis  affects  the  bronchi  where  it  causes 
a  catarrhal  condition  and  at  times  abscess  formation. 

UNIMPORTANT  ROUND  WORMS 

There  are  other  round  worms  that  may  infest  the  intestinal 
tract,  l)ut  they  are  not  common,  or  important,  to  the  poultry 
industry.     The  list  follows  : 

Heterakis   Differens 
This  is   a   slightly   larger   species   than   the   Heterakis   papillosa. 
Its  mouth  has  no  apparent  lips:    the   pharyngeal  bulb  is  distinct; 
there  are  two  unequal  spiculae.    It  is  found  in  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  intestines  of  chickens. 

Heterakis  Compressa 

This  is  a  round  worm  of  about  the  size  of  the  Ascaris  inflexa. 
The  tail  ends  in  a  sharp  mucro.  It  is  found  in  the  small  intestines 
of  chickens. 

Trichosomum 

Several  species  of  this  genus  have  been  reported  from  various 
parts  of  the  world,  but  have  not  been  observed  by  the  author  in 
this  country.  They  are  shaped  something  like  the  old-fashioned 
blacksnake  whip.  They  are  blood  suckers,  and  in  the  adult  stage 
live  in  the  small  intestine. 


1)4  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Heterakis   Maculosa 

A  round,  white  worm  found  in  intestinal  vesicles  of  the  pigeon. 
The  male  is  about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  and  the  female  about 
one  inch  long.  At  times  this  worm  is  a  serious  menace  to  the  flock, 
killing  many  birds.  The  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  produced  in 
chickens  by   round  worms. 

Dispharagus  Nasutus  (Filaria  Tite),  Dispharagus  Spiralis  and  Dis- 

pharagus  Laticeps 

These  sometimes  infest  the  crop  and  stomach  of  the  chicken. 
They  are  slender  round  worms  and  sometimes  cause  catarrh  and 
if  in  very  large  numbers  the  bird  becomes  emaciated  and  dies. 

Trichosoma  Contortum 

This  worm  infests  the  crop  of  ducks  and  geese.  It  causes  catarrh, 
dilation  of  the  crop  and  emaciation.  The  bird  appears  dull  and  may 
show  epileptiform  symptoms.  After  the  crop  has  been  infested  for 
about  ten  days  severe  symptoms  may  appear.  Obstruction  of  the 
crop  often  follows.  A  positive  diagnosis  may  be  made  by  irrigating 
the  crop  and  washing  out  the  small  whip-like  worms.  Both  macro- 
scopic and  microscopic  examination  of  the  material  washed  from  the 
crop  should  be  made. 

Treatrnent  has  been  rather  unsatisfactory.  Keep  the  birds  away 
from  infected  water.  Give  each  bird  one  grain  thymol  and  one 
teaspoonful  epsom  salts. 

TAPEWORMS 
Flat  Segmented  Worms 

Tapeworms  inhabit  the  intestinal  tracts  of  all  species  of 
birds,  animals  and  men.  More  than  thirty  different  species  of 
tapeworms  have  been  recorded  in  poultry. 

Tapeworms  differ  from  round  worms,  in  that  they  have  no 
complete  digestive  tract,  are  flat  and  segmented  and  have  no 
distinct  sex;  that  is,  the  male  and  the  female  are  combined 
in  a  single  individual  (hermaphrodite).  The  tapeworms  all 
live  in  the  intestinal  tract,  in  their  adult  stage,  and  absorb, 
through  their  integument,  nutrients,  taken  in  and  digested  by 
their  host ;  thus  they  rob  their  host  of  food  nutrients.  The  spe 
cies  studied  in  the  author's  lal)oratory  are  from  chickens.  Tlic 
worm  is  divided  into  a  head,  neck  and  body.  The  head  is  ]U'o- 
vided  with  four  suckers  and  in  some  species  w  cii'cular  row  of 
booklets.  The  neck  in  some  species  is  long,  in  others  short,  but 
always  unsegmented.  The  body  is  composed  of  segments 
Tliese  segments  grow  from  the  neck.  At  lii'st  they  are  short 
and  narrow,  but  ])ecome  longer  and  wider  as  the  distance 
from  the  head  increases.  At  varying  distances  from  the  head 
the  segments  become  mature,  that  is,  fully  developed  sexually, 
and  ready  to  propagate.  Each  segment  is  really  a  separate 
animal  and  is  a  henna plirodite,  that  is,  provided  with  both 
male  and  female  generative  organs.     Each  segment  iinpreg- 


INTERNAL  PARASITES  95 

nates  itself,  after  whicli  the  eggs  are  devel()i)ed.  As  soon  as 
the  segment  is  tilled  witli  full  developed  or  mature  eggs,  the 
segment  detaehes  itself,  passes  out  with  the  feces  and  falls  to 
the  ground.  Thus,  at  times,  we  may  find  in  the  excrement 
of  an  infested  bird  the  segments,  white  in  color  and  possess- 
ing the  power  of  movement ;  that  is,  it  contracts  and  expands, 
showing  it  to  be  nliv(\  This  is  especially  noticeable  if  the  seg- 
ments be  placed  in  water.  Before  it  is  detached  each  segment 
absorbs  its  own  nutrients  through  its  integument.  This  nutri- 
ent consists  of  the  food  eaten  and  digested  by  its  host  as 
alluded  to  above.  New  segments  are  constantly  developed  by 
the  neck  of  the  tapeworm,  growing  down,  becoming  ripe,  i.  e., 
filled  with  mature  eggs,  and  detached ;  if  not  interfered  with, 
this  process  goes  on  almost  indefinitely. 

Upon  disintegration  of  the  segments  shed  from  the  worm, 
and  passed  out  with  the  feces,  the  eggs  become  scattered.  The 
life  history  of  the  worm  from  this  state  is  not  well  understood. 
It  probably  has  an  intermediate  host,  by  which  the  eggs  are 
taken  up,  and  within  which  they  pass  through  a  cystic  stage 
and  form  larvae,  which  reach  the  intestine  of  the  bird,  become 
attached  and  develop  to  the  adult  stage. 

The  larva  consists  of  a  head  with  its  fixation  apparatus, 
namely,  the  suckers  and  booklets,  if  such  be  present  in  the 
adult,  and  a  neck.  Having  attached  itself  to  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  intestines,  it  now  absorbs  digested  food  and 
begins  to  develop  segments,  which  in  a  few  Aveeks  begin  again 
to  be  shed  at  intervals,  containing  fully  developed  eggs,  which 
number  several  hundred  in  each  segment.  Under  proper  con- 
ditions, each  egg  is  capable  of  producing  a  single  tapeworm  as 
before. 

Tapeworms  of  Domestic  Fowls 

Intermediate  host 
Name  Host         (cysticercoid  stage) 

Davainea  proglottina  Fowl Slug  (Llmax  cinereus) 

Davainea  tetragona    Fowl Snail    (Helix) 

Choanota    Infundibuliformis Fowl Fly  (  Musca  domestica) 

Dicranotaenia  sphenoides Fowl Fly   (Musca  domestica) 

Echinocotylus  rosseteri Fowl Earth  worm  (  Lumbricales) 

Duck Fresh  water  crustacean 

(cypriscinereus) 

Dicranotaenia  coronula Duck Cypris  cinerea 

Drepanidotaenia  gracilis Duck Cypris  cinerea 

Duck Cypris  viriens 

Drepanidotaenia  tenuirostris Duck Cyclops  agilis 

Davainea  echinobothrida    Fowl Not  known 

Davainea  cesticillus   Fowl Xot  known 

Hymenolepis  carioca Fowl Not  known  ' 

Davainea    echinobothrida Turkey.. Not  known 


96  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Taenia   Infundibuliformis — Tapeworm 

This  worm  is  sometimes  called  the  Choanota  infundibul- 
iformis and  also  the  Drepanidotcenisi  infundibidiformis. 

Description. — This  worm  varies  in  length  from  one  and  one-half 
to  three  inches.  Fig.  42  illustrates  a  mature  worm.  Its  head  is  oval, 
the  neck  short  and  the  segments  shorter  in  length  than  in  width. 
The  head  is  provided  with  four  sucker-discs  and  a  crown  of  from 
sixteen  to  twenty  hooklets.  ^/nich  cannot  be  seen  except  by  micro- 
scopic examination.  The  anterior  border  of  the  seg- 
ments is  a  trifle  shorter  than  the  posterior  border,  giv- 
ing the  border  of  the  worm  a  serrated  aspect.  The 
male  and  the  female  genital  pores  irregularly  alter- 
nate. 

Life  History. — The  eggs  passing  out  of  the  ground 
are  taken  up  by  the  intermediate  host,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Grassi,  is  the  earth  worm.  Rovelli  claims  to 
have  found  the  larval  or  cystic  stage,  in  the  house-fly. 

Symptoms  of  Infestation. — If  a  bird  be  in- 
fested b}^  large  numbers  of  tapeworms  it  is 
Fig.  42.  tae-  robbed  of  much  food,  as  related  above,  and  it 
BULi  F^o  R^M  i^s  becomes  unthrifty,  shows  an  unkempt  appear- 
(NATURAL  SIZE)  aucc  of  the  feathers  and  possibly  a  loss  of  flesh, 
se  g'm^^e  n^t  e^d  -^^  a  rcsult  of  the  irritatiou  produced  by  these 
body.  parasites   there  is  a  loss  of   appetite,   derange- 

ment of  digestion,  catarrhal  condition  of  the 
bowels  and  loss  in  egg  production.  Birds  two  to  three  months 
of  age  may  harbor  adult  tapeworms.  This  tapeworm  often 
causes  the  death  of  the  infested  bird.  In  the  later  stages  of 
infestation  the  bird  appears  dull,  emaciated  and  there  is  com- 
plete loss  of  appetite. 

This,  one  of  the  most  common  tapeworms,  has  been  found 
to  be  transmitted  by  the  house  fly  (]\Iusca  domestica).  Young 
birds  are  more  active  in  catching  flies  than  older  ones  and 
are  often  more  greatly  infested.  The  degree  of  harmfulness 
depends  upon  the  number  of  tapeworms  infesting  the  bird. 
Birds  with  slight  infestations  may  not  show  any  symptoms. 
They  may  devour  large  quantities  of  feed,  appear  ravenously 
hungry.  The  irritation  caused  by  the  worms  may  cause  diar- 
rhea and  the  food  be  rushed  through  the  intestinal  tract  be- 
fore digestion  and  absorption  can  be  properly  accomplished. 
Though  birds  eat  ravenously  at  first,  their  intestines  are  prac- 
tically empty.  The  tapeworms  rob  the  host  l)y  alisor])ing 
digested  nutrients.  In  the  earlier  stages  the  bird  appears 
restless.  Heavily  infested  growing  ])irds  show  a  lack  of  proper 
development;  they  are  usually  slender,  poor  in  flesh,  the  head 
thin  and  the  face,  comb  and  wattles  pale. 

Treatment. — Give  one-half  tablespoonful  of  E])som  salt  dis- 


INTERNAL  PARASITES 


97 


solved  in  wnnn  water,  hy  the  month  or  mix  in  bran,  making 
a  wet  mash;  follow  with  two  or  three  teaspoonfnls  of  turpen- 
tine. A  few  teaspoon fuls  of  a  decoetion  of  punij)kin  seeds 
usually  rid  the  bird  of  tapeworms.  This  should  be  followed 
by  a  heaping  teaspoonful  of  Epsom  salt  or  a  tablespoonfal  of 
olive  oil.  Powdered  areca  nut  in  3-grain  doses  given  in  dough 
ball  by  the  mouth  or  in  wet  nuish  is  also  effective.  Thymol 
in  one-grain  doses  is  said  to  rid  the  digestive  tract  of  worms. 
Mix  one  tablespoonful  of  concentrated  lye  with  four  quarts 
of  grain,  as  wheat,  oats  and  corn,  and  feed  to  the  infested  flock. 
It  is  better  to  fast  the  birds  for  twelve  to  eighteen  hours.  Give 
water  as  soon  as  the  grain  has  been  given  as  it  aids  in  diluting 
the  lye.  Repeat  the  dose  in  twenty-four  and  again  in  forty- 
eight  hours.     The  lye  acts  to  some  extent  as  a  purgative. 

Davainea  Tetragona 

This  is  the  parasite  that  causes  nodular  tieniasis  (nodular 
tapeworm  disease).  It  has  been  observed  and  reported  as 
occurring  in  some  of  the  eastern  states  and  causing  quite  a 
loss  to  poultrj^  raisers. 

Fig.  43  illustrates  the  nodules  as  they  are  found  and  about 
natural  in  size.  This  is  from  a  drawing  of  the  outer  (serous) 
surface  of  an  intestine,  which 
presents  a  nodular  appearance 
that  might  be  mistaken  for  tu- 
berculosis. The  mucous  (in- 
ner) surface  of  the  intestine  is 
similarly  elevated,  and  pro- 
truding from  the  nodule  into 
the  intestine  may  be  seen  a 
portion  of  some  of  the  worm. 
In  later  stages  these  nodules 
may  show  ulcerations  on  the 
mucous  surface.  There  may  be 
seen  in  these  nodules  a  green- 
ish-yellow necrotic  material.  A 
secondary  invasion,  with  pus 
germs,     may    take    place,     in 

which  case  pus  will  be  present.    Before  the  nodules  are  formed 
these  worms  may  be  seen  between  the  villi. 

The  occurrence  of  this  tapeworm  in  the  intestine  is  similar 
to  the  tapeworm  described  above  {Tccnia  inf undihuliformis) . 

Treatment. — The  treatment  should  be  the  same  as  for  the 
Tccnia  infundibuUformis  (which  see),  or  mix  with  the  feed 
one  teaspoonful  of  powdered  pomegranate  root  bark  for  every 
fiftv  adult  birds. 


B 


Fjg.    43. 


(tape- 


Nodular    Taeniasis 

WORM     DISEAbE). 

A,  section  of  intestine  of  chicken 
(natural  size);  B,  nodules  (natural 
size). 


98  POCLTRV  DISEASES 

Davainea  Echinobothrida 

This  tapeworm  infests  the  small  intestines  of  turkeys.  It 
has  been   found  in  tnrkevs  in   North  Carolina.     Its  head  is 

« 

sliti'litly  larg'er  than  the  n(^ck.  is  rounded  in  front  and  pro- 
vided with  four  suekers  and  a  circular  rostellum  of  hooklets. 
These  hooklets  are  arranged  in  a  double  row.  The  hooks 
lunnber  about  200  and  surround  a  pit-like  cavity.  This  con- 
stitutes its  fixation  apparatus  by  which  means  it  holds  on  to 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  l)Owel.  These  worms  may  reach 
the  length  of  six  inches.  The  mode  of  spread  of  the  parasite 
and  treatment  of  the  birds  are  the  same  as  in  the  fowl. 

Other  Taeniae 

Two  or  three  other  species  of  tapeworms  closely  resend)ling 
these  in  their  gross  appearance  have  been  described,  but  judg- 
ing from  the  records  they  do  not  appear  to  be  connnon.  Tape- 
worms are  also  found  in  the  intestinal  tract  of  ducks  and 
other  birds. 

THE  THORN-HEADED  WORMS 
(Acanthocephala) 

The  third  class  of  worms  listed  belong  to  the  order  Acan- 
thocephala. The  body  is  cylindrical,  but  they  are  not  pro- 
vided with  a  complete  digestive  tract,  as  are  the  nematodes, 
or  round  worms.  They  have  transverse  markings,  and,  like 
the  tapeworms,  live  by  absorbing,  through  their  integument, 
nutrients  eaten  and  digested  by  their  hosts,  thus,  to  a  degree, 
robbing  them.  Furthermore,  when  present  in  great  numbers, 
these  parasites  cause  digestive  derangements  and  emaciation 
of  their  hosts.  They  are  provided  Avith  a  globe-shaped  pro- 
boscis, armed  Avith  hooklets,  which  they  embed  in  the  mucous 
lining  of  the  intestines;  thus  attached  by  their  heads,  their 
bodies  float  in  the  intestinal  contents. 

Echinorynchus  Polymorphus 

This  is  one  of  the  three  species  of  this  geiuis  that  live  in 
the  intestines  of  the  duck.     Tt  is  also  found  in  the  goose. 

Description. — The  Echinorjjuchus  poUjmorphus  varies  in  length 
from  one-fourth  to  one  inch.  The  body  is  orange-red  in  color.  It 
has  a  neck-like  construction,  just  back  of  the  hooked,  globe-shaped 
proboscis.  Its  proboscis  is  provided  with  eight  or  nine  rows  of 
hooklets. 

TAfp  History. — This  worm  reproduces  by  laying  eggs.  The  inter- 
mediate host  is  certain  fish,  as  the  shrimp  and  crayfish.  Ducks 
become  infested  by  eating  fish  infested  by  the  larval  or  cystic  form. 
This  parasite  is  probaoly  rare  in   the  T'nited   States. 


JXTEKNAL  PARASITES  99 

FLUKES 
(Trematodes) 

The  roiiiniiiino-  ^-i-onp  of  worms  wliidi  iiilia])it  the  intestinal 
traet  of  birds  belong"  to  the  class  of  Treiiiatoda  and  are  eom- 
iiionly  known  as  flukes. 

Th(^  tlukes  of  birds  are  harbored  for  the  most  part  in  the 
intestinal  traet.  If  we  are  to  judge  from  reports,  these  worms 
are  exceedingly  rare  in   this  country. 

Notocotyle  Verrucosum 

Perhaps  tlie  most  common  of  the  flukes  is  the  Notocotyle 
verrucosum.  Jts  body  is  white  or  reddish  white  and  from  one- 
twelfth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  long,  an  oblong  oval  in  shape, 
narrow  in  front  and  rounded  behind.  It  is  found  in  the  in- 
testines, principally  the  cecum  or  l)lind  gut  of  chickens  and 
ducks. 

No  serious  results  have  been  attributed  to  the  flukes  of 
poultry,  although  it  is  well  known  that  they  cause  serious 
maladies  in  other  animals.  There  have  been  three  or  four 
other  similar  worms  described  which  closely  resemble  this  one. 

INTESTINAL  WORMS  OF  CANARIES 

If  the  bird  is  infested  with  worms,  these  may  at  times  be 
noted  in  the  droppings.  Place  in  the  drinking  water  ten 
drops  tincture  gentian  to  each  ounce  of  the  liquid.  After 
two  days  give  two  drops  olive  oil  by  the  mouth  by  means  of 
a  medicine  dropper. 


>    1. 


SECTIOX  V 

DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT 

Birds  are  not  subject  to  the  manifold  ills  of  the  digestive 
system  that  prevail  in  higher  animals  and  man.  at  least  the 
list  of  digestive  ailments  which  we  recognize  in  birds  are 
not  so  numerous  as  they  are  in  higher  animals.  Beginning 
with  the  anterior  portion  of  the  digestive  canal,  the  mouth, 
we  find  its  part  in  digestion  relatively  unimportant  compared 
to  that  of  the  same  organ  in  mammals,  and  its  ailments  cor- 
respondingly fewer  and  less  important. 

The  food  is  not  masticated  in  the  mouth  as  in  higher  ani- 
mals, but  is  swallowed  whole,  passing  into  the  crop,  where 
it  is  softened  bv  the  action  of  the  fluids  secreted  bv  that 
organ  and  perhaps  also  by  the  action  of  bacteria  swallow^ed 
with  it.  After  maceration  in  the  crop  is  accomplished,  the 
food  passes  into  the  proventriculus  (stomach),  wiiere  the  proc- 
esses of  digestion  are  carried  still  futher  by  the  secretions 
(juices)  of  that  organ.  The  thoroughly  soaked  and  softened 
food  is  next  received  into  the  gizzard  and  ground  (Avith  the 
pebbles — grit — always  present  in  that  organ)  to  a  paste  by 
the  action  of  its  strong  muscular  walls. 

From  the  gizzard  the  food  passes  into  the  small  intestine, 
where  digestion  is  carried  on  much  as  it  is  in  other  domestic 
animals,  by  the  action  of  the  secretions  of  the  intestine,  liver 
and  pancreas. 

Domestication  has  affected  the  feeding  habits  of  birds  much 
as  it  has  the  feeding  habits  of  horses.  In  the  wild  state  birds, 
like  horses,  eat  most  of  the  time,  but  they  secure  their  proven- 
der more  slowly.  Under  domestication  they  are  fed  nutritious, 
highly  concentrated  food  in  a  readily  accessible  form,  two  or 
three  times  daily,  and  are  required  to  exercise  but  slightly  to 
get  it.  Frequent  disturbances  of  digestion,  largely  due  in  one 
way  or  another  to  engorgement,  is  the  result. 

OBSTRUCTION  OF  THE  BEAK 

This  condition  is  very  rare.  Cases  have  been  noted  in  which 
an  object,  such  as  a  sunflower-seed,  has  become  wedged  be- 
tween the  rami  (branches)  of  the  inferior  maxilla  (lower  por- 
tion of  the  beak),  and  serious  trouble  has  resulted  from  this 
pressure;  for  example,  paralysis  of  the  tongue,  inability  to 
eat,  starvation  and  death. 


102  POrLTRY  DISEASES 

A  bird  with  o])striictioii  of  the  ])eak  will  shake  its  head  and 
scratch  at  its  beak.  Upon  noticint^-  such  symptoms  in  a  fowl 
the  caretaker  should  examine  its  mouth  and  remove  the 
obstruction. 

"PIP" 

Amon^  poultrymen  one  often  hears  of  ''pip"  as  a  disease 
of  fowls,  particularly  of  chickens.  It  is  one  of  those  names 
like  ''hollow  horn"  or  "loss  of  cud,"  in  cattle,  which  signifies 
no  specific  disease  or  condition,  but  merely  a  sj^nptom  of  some 
ailment,  real  or  fancied. 

In  some  of  the  respiratory  diseases,  particularly  in  roup 
and  pox,  the  nostrils  nmy  be  closed  by  an  exudate  and  the 
l)irds  compelled  to  breathe  through  the  mouth,  and  if.  as  is 
usually  the  case,  the  bird  has  an  abnormally  high  temperature 
(fever)  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  mouth  to 
become  very  dry  and  the  mucous  membrane  maj^  crack  and 
bleed.  Owing  to  its  dryness,  the  epithelium  of  the  tongue  may 
not  exfoliate  normally,  and,  being  retained,  may  form  a  trans- 
parent ' '  beak  or  horn ' '  on  the  end  of  the  tongue.  This  dryness 
of  the  mouth  and  the  resultant  changec  are  what  is  known  as 
"pip."  This  dried  eud  of  the  tongue  should  not  be  picked  off 
as  often  this  causes  death  of  the  bird. 

This  condition  may  also  accompany  diseases  of  the  mouth  or 
the  respiratory  passage,  in  which,  on  account  of  the  difficulty 
in  breathing  the  bird  holds  its  beak  partially  open.  The  sur- 
face of  the  mucous  membrane  may  become  dried  and  catarrhal 
stomatitis  follow.  The  bird  will  be  noted  to  hold  its  mouth 
partly  open  and  at  intervals  emit  a  shrill  sound,  accompanied 
by  a  jerk  of  the  head. 

Open  the  mouth  and  observe  the  tongue  and  buccal  cavity. 
The  tip,  borders  and  frenum  of  the  tongue  are  found  covered 
by  a  hard,  dry  coating,  which  may  also  extend  to  the  ])uccal 
nucous  membrane.  Forcible  removal  of  this  membrane  re- 
sults in  a  bleeding  surface  wdiich  may  soon  ulcerate  as  a  re- 
sult of  infection  and  death  of  the  bird  is  likelv  to  follow. 

Treatment. — In  such  cases  the  treatment  consists  in  the  first 
place  of  measures  directed  at  the  primary  cause ;  that  is,  the 
condition  which  is  producing  the  dryness  of  the  mouth.  The 
hardening  and  drying  of  the  membi'anes  of  the  mouth  may 
be  relieved  by  the  ai)plication.  several  times  daily,  of  a  mix- 
ture of  e(jual   parts  of  glycerin   and    water. 

If  cracks  and  ulcers  have  formed  tiiey  should  be  ])athed  in 
a  solution  of  potassium  chlorate  and  water,  twenty  grains 
of  the  former  to  the  ounce  of  the  latter.  This  is  best  ac- 
complished by  dipping  tlie  l)ird's  beak  into  a  vessel,  eontaining 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT        103 

this  solution,  five  or  six  times  and  rcpcMlirif]:  every  hour  or 
two.  It'  pus  has  formed  in  the  uh'crs,  they  may  well  be 
eleaned  with  a  lew  di'o|)s  of  hydrotjen  peroxid  before  the 
potassium  eldorate  solution  is  used. 

STOMATITIS— SORE   MOUTH 

The  iileerative  form  of  sore  mouth,  due  to  fungi  (molds), 
has  been  deseribed  inider  external  parasites.  (See  thrush, 
aphtlia,  page  84.)  Quite  frequently  in  eases  of  avian  diph- 
theria or  roup  we  find  diphtheric  patches  in  the  mouth  and 
ovei"  the  tongue,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  67.  This  is  described 
under  respiratory  diseases.     (See  page  177.) 

Simple  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  mouth  is  not  com- 
mon. It  may  be  caused  by  s(mie  irritants,  or  by  bacterial 
(germ)   invasion  of  an  injured  part. 

Treatment. — A  saturated  solution  of  boric  acid  should  be 
used  for  bathing  the  affected  parts.  If  ulcers  are  present 
they  should  first  be  cleansed  with  full-strength  hydrogen 
peroxid. 

IMPACTION  OF  THE  CROP— CROP  BOUND 

Obstruction  of  the  crop  is  generally  due  to  swallowing 
bodies  that  cannot  pass  readily  from  the  crop  through  the 
second  portion  of  the  esophagus  to  the  stomach  and  gizzard, 
that  is,  to  an  obstruction  of  the  second  portion  of  the  esopha- 
gus. Hog  bristles,  small  feathers,  straw,  etc.,  are  usually  the 
cause  of  the  obstruction.  Of  the  cases  examined  in  the  au- 
thor's laboratory  some  have  been  due  to  each  of  the  agent-s 
named.  Two  incubator-hatched  and  brooder-raised  chicks, 
just  beginning  to  feather,  were  given  potato  parings,  after 
which  they  died.  There  was  found  in  each  crop  a  potato 
paring  extending  from  the  crop  through  the  second  portion 
of  the  esophagus  into  the  stomach. 

By  referring  to  Fig.  2  these  organs  and  their  relations  can 
be  seen. 

A  second  cause  of  impaction  of  the  crop  is  due  to  low 
vitality  of  the  bird;  as  a  result  of  acute  disease,  e.  g.,  cholera, 
or  from  improper  nourishment,  the  thin  nuiscular  walls  of 
the  crop  may  become  paralyzed  or  so  weakened  as  to  ])e  un- 
able to  force  its  contents  onward  into  the  proventriculus. 

Symptoms. — Tlie  animal  becomes  dull,  occasionally  opening 
its  beak  and  fetid  gases  are  sometimes  emitted.  There  is  an 
absence  of  ai)petite.  The  crop  a])pears  enlarged,  the  walls 
tense,  doughy  to  the  touch  and  foreign  liodies  may  be 
felt  through  its  walls.  Obstruction  of  the  crop  rarely  dis- 
appears spontaneously  and  if  no  relief  is  given  the  bird  may 


KJ4  POULTRY  DISEASES 

die  in  a  few  days.  Death  is  usually  due  to  exhaustion  and 
stai'vation.  Foreign  bodies  in  the  stomach  of  fowls  often 
cause  perforation  of  its  wall.  Johne  reports  perforation  of 
the  wall  of  the  stomach  of  a  goose  due  to  a  pointed  foreign 
body. 

Treatment. — Surgical  interference  is  the  only  treatment  for 
this  condition  likely  to  be  effective.  Having  diagnosed  the 
case,  it  is  not  difficult  to  clip  away  the  feathers,  clean  up  the 
surface  with  mild  antiseptics  and  with  a  sharp  knife  open 
the  crop  and  remove  the  obstruction.  The  crop  and  the  skin 
should  then  be  sutured,  and  the  bird  allowed  only  soft  food 
for  a  week. 

AYhere  the  obstruction  is  due  to  a  weakened  condition  of 
tlie  walls  of  the  proventriculus,  its  contents  may  sometimes 
be  forced  back  through  the  gullet  and  out  of  the  mouth  by 
careful  manipulation  with  the  hands. 

IMPACTION   OF   THE  INTESTINES 

This  condition  is  rare  in  fowls  on  range.  It  may  be  due 
to  masses  of  intestinal  worms  such  as  round  worms  (Ascaris 
inflexa)  or  tapeworms  or  it  may  be  due  to  pebbles,  pieces 
of  rags  or  feathers. 

Canaries  and  other  cage  birds  at  times  suffer  from  impac- 
tion caused  by  sluggish  peristalsis  due  to  the  sedentary  life  and 
heavy,  indigestible  feeds.  Impaction  of  the  cecum  due  to  im- 
proper feeding  may  occur.  The  matting  together  of  the  vent 
feathers  may  prevent  defecation.  This  is  very  common  in 
ba])y  chicks  affected  by  diarrhea. 

Symptoms. — The  birds  drop  dry  feces  in  small  amounts  at 
long  intervals  and  accompanied  with  considerable  straining. 
Tliere  may  be  depression  of  the  bird,  listlessness,  loss  of  ap- 
petite. Death  may  occur  from  necrosis  of  the  wall  at  point 
of  obstruction  and  from  exhaustion. 

Treatment. — Give  a  cathartic  of  castor  oil  or  Epsom  salts. 
Give  one-half  tablespoonful  Epsom  salts  to  an  adult  fowl  and 
in  proportion  to  small  birds. 

TYMPANY  OF  THE  CROP  (GASEOUS  CROP) 

Tliis  is  due  to  a  gas-forming  germ,  which  sets  up  putrefac- 
tion of  the  contents  of  the  crop.  It  is  usually  accompanied 
by  an  inflammation  (catarrh)  of  the  croj)  wliich  inter  Teres 
with  its  normal  function.  Birds  have  been  noted  to  have  at 
times  enormously  distended  crops,  which,  upon  examination, 
proved  to  ])e  filled  with  gas.  Usually  these  crops  contain  very 
little  feed.  This  condition  often  affects  chicks  as  well  as  older 
birds. 


DISEASES  OP  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT        105 

Treatment. — Give  intestinal  antiseptics,  sueli  as  one  part 
of  carbolic  acid  to  two  hundred  i)arts  of  water,  or  mercuric 
chlorid  (corrosive  sublimate),  one  part  to  ten  thousand  parts 
of  water,  or  sulphocarholates  compound. 

Immediate  temporary  relief  may  be  given  In'  liberating? 
the  gas  througli  an  aspii-ating  needle  or  a  small  cannula.  The 
crop  may  then  be  irrigated,  through  the  cannula,  with  a  mild 
antiseptic  solution.  Follow  with  two  teaspoonfuls  of  castor 
oil  and  feed  sparingly  on  easily  digested  food. 

ENLARGED   CROP 
Pendulous  Crop 

The  crop  may  sometimes  become  very  much  enlarged,  slack 
and  pendulous.  This  condition  is  mainly  due  to  injudicious 
feeding. 

Pendulant  crop  causes  little  inconvenience  to  the  bird  and 
is  incurable  except  by  resection  of  a  portion  of  its  walls. 
This  operation  is  simple  and  easily  performed. 

GANGRENE    OF   THE   CROP 

This  condition  has  been  observed  several  times  by  the  author. 
It  resulted  fatally  to  the  birds  affected  in  all  the  cases  studied. 
Upon  opening  the  crop  a  very  offensive  odor  is  noted,  the 
mucous  lining  will  be  found  in  a  necrotic  state  (sloughing) 
and  appear  as  a  dark,  sometimes  a  greenish,  caseous  mass. 

Treatment. — In  the  earlier  stages  there  may  be  given,  in  the 
feed  or  water,  salol,  subnitrate  of  bismuth  or  sulphocarholates 
compound.  If  the  condition  becomes  prevalent  in  a  flock,  the 
runs,  yards  and  henhouses  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected 
or  the  birds  completely  changed  to  new  grounds,  and  in  any 
case  given  clean  food  and  drink.  The  sick  should  be  separ- 
ated from  the  well  birds  and  the  dead  should  be  burned. 

CATARRH   OF  THE   CROP   (INGLUVITIS) 

Irregular  feeding,  a  distended  crop  and  irritating  and  in- 
digestible feed,  such  as  feathers,  putrid  meat  and  irritant 
chemicals,  may  be  mentioned  as  causes  of  this  condition  which 
is  essentially  a  more  or  less  chronic  inflannnation  of  the  mu- 
cous meml)rane,  lining  the  crop.  If  the  crop  be  over-distended 
the  strain  on  the  muscles  may  be  so  great  that  paralysis  re- 
sults. In  these  cases  there  is  noted  a  crop  tilled  with  a  pulpy, 
soft,   more  or  less  gaseous  mass. 

It  may  be  noted  after  the  ingestion  of  pointed  objects. 
Too  early  removal  of  the  squabs  from  the  parent  birds  (pig- 
eons) has  been  known  to  cause  ingluvitis  because  of  the  fact 


]06  POULTRY  DISEASES 

that  tlu'  glands  wliich  were  active  during  the  feeding  of  the 
young  suddenly  eea.sed  l^eing  used  and   heeame  intlanied. 

S y nipt 0 his. — There  is  a  loss  of  appetite.  Tlie  bird  appears 
dull,  stretches  its  neck  repeatedly  and  swallowing  becomes 
difficult.  The  crop  is  tender  to  pressure,  soft  to  the  touch 
and  at  times,  gaseous.  Pressure  on  the  crop  may  cause  fetid 
gases  to  escape  from  the  mouth.  Repeated  attacks  cause  the 
development  of  pendulous  crop. 

Treatment. — If  the  crop  be  distended  with  a  dough-like 
mass,  grasp  the  bird  by  the  legs,  holding  the  head  downward, 
gently  press  out  the  mass ;  then  by  introducing  water  through 
the  mouth  and  forcing  it  out  as  before,  the  crop,  in  this  way, 
may  be  washed  out. 

Give  bland  substances,  such  as  gruel  and  mild  antiseptics, 
such  as  salol,  subnitrate  of  bismuth  or  sulphocarbolates  com- 
pound. 

DEPRAVED  APPETITE   (PICA) 

This  may  be  due  to  a  disease  of  the  digestive  organs  or  it 
may  be  a  vice  learned  from  others.  Hens  learn  to  eat  eggs 
by  finding  them  broken  or  by  seeing  an  egg-eating  hen  and 
copying  as  a  cril)bing  horse  acquires  the  habit  from  his  mate, 
or  as  one  hog  may  learn  to  eat  chickens  from  seeing  another 
eating  one. 

Feather  eating  (plucking)  is  another  habit  that  may  be 
acquired  from  mimicry.  Obstruction  of  the  gizzard,  lack  of 
grit,  insufficient  or  unsuitable  food  and  catarrh  of  the  crop 
are  factors  of  greater  or  less  importance  in  causing  a  depraved 
appetite.     Kill  the  bird;  the  habit  cannot  be  broken. 

CHICKEN    CHOLERA— FOWL    CHOLERA 

Fowl  cholera  is  caused  by  a  germ  {BariJlus  avisepticiis) . 
and  is  a  blood-poisoning  (septicemia).  The  germ  is  rather 
short,  plump,  and  stains  at  the  poles  or  ends  deeper  than  the 
middle,  with  arpieous  fuchsin,  hence  it  is  called  a  ]K)]ar-stain- 
ing  ])acillus.  Fig.  44  shows  the  germ,  magnified  1. 000  times. 
This  drawing  was  nu^de  from  a  blood  smear  from  an  outbreak 
among  turkeys  and  chickens,  which  was  one  of  several  out- 
breaks that  have  been  studied  in  the  author's  laboratory.  The 
large  objects  are  various  kinds  of  blood  cells.  One  of  these, 
a  white-blood  cell  (i)hagocyte),  has  taken  up  one  of  the  germs. 

Mode  of  Spread. — Birds  often  contract  this  disease  from 
others  at  shows,  and  when  taken  l)ack  home  infect  the  re- 
mainder of  the  flock  aiul  the  premises,  or  a  bird  recently  pur- 
chased from  an  infected  flock,  or  eggs  from  an  infected  flock, 
or   chicks   recentlv  liatched    in    infected   suri'oundings,   oi-   in- 


DISEASES  OF  THE   DKJESTIVE  TRACT         107 


ferti'd  ilr()|)|)iii«is  rarriccl  on  tlic  t'cct  of  hr'Ii  and  animals, 
from  lu'nhousi's  where  the  disease  exists,  or  carried  by  streams 
ar  irrigation  ditch  water,  dried  and  earricd  by  the  wind  as 
dust,  or  carried  by  wild  liirds.  may  be  tlie  means  of  introduc- 
ing this  disease  among  healthy  birds.  Even  insects  have  ])een 
known  to  carry  tlie  contagion.  Huzzards  are  connnon  carriers 
of  this  disease. 

The  germ  of  fowl  cholera  retains  its  power  to  produce  dis- 
ease for  weeks,  and  even  months,  about  premises  where  it  has 
occurred,  nnless  they  be  thoroughly  disinfected.  The  germs 
have  been  kept  in  test  tubes,  experimentally,  for  two  years 
and  still  proved  to  be  virnlent,  that  is,  still  cai)able  of  pro- 
ducing disease.  It  resists,  for  a  long  time.  l)oth  drying  and 
zero  weather. 

Cholera  may  affect  chickens,  turkeys,  ducks,  geese,  pigeons 
and  many  wild  birds.  The  period  of  incubation  (the  lime 
elapsing  from  the  entrance  of 
the  germs  into  the  body  of  the 
l)ird  until  the  appearance  of 
the  first  symptoms  of  the  dis- 
ease) is  given  as  from  twelve 
to  forty-eight  hours. 

In  our  experimental  work, 
in  which  the  virus  (germ)  was 
introduced  into  the  peritoneal 
cavity,  this  period  was  six  to 
twelve  hours;  when  the  virus 
was  given  by  the  mouth  it  re- 
quired twenty-four  to  thirty-six 
hours  to  produce  the  disease. 
The  birds  died  twelve  to  seven- 
ty-two hours  later. 

Symptoms. — The  onset  of  this  disease  may  be  so  sudden 
that  its  signs  pass  unobserved,  and  finding  the  dead  birds  in 
tlie  nests  or  under  the  roosts  may  be  the  first  notice  that  the 
owner  has  of  the  existence  of  disease  in  his  flock;  or  the  ])irds 
nmv  have  fowl  cholera  in  a  more  chronic  form  and  live  for 
six  to  seven  days. 

In  the  protracted  cases  there  is  noted  loss  of  appetite,  great 
prostration,  staring  feathers;  the  bird  mo])es  or  sits  around 
with  tail  and  head  down,  giving  the  so-called  ''ball"  appear- 
ance, the  comb  is  dark,  tlie  gait  swaying,  and  there  is  trem- 
bling, convulsions,  thirst,  and  severe  diarrhea,  with  passatres 
of  a  greenish-yellow  color.  There  is  high  fever  and  the  bird 
ra])idly  becomes  emaciated. 

The  percentage  of  loss  in  the  flock,  if  not  treated,  is  very 


Fi< 


-14. 


FROM 


Case 


Blood     Smear 
OF  Cholera. 

Sliowing  red  blood  cells,  clirom- 
bocytes,  mononuclear  neutropliiles  and 
many  of  the  po!?r  staining  geruis 
n*.acilliis   avisepticu=)    of  the   dis^eas'^. 


108  POULTRY  DISEASES 

great.  The  disease  spreads  rapidly  through  a  flock.  Pure- 
bred birds  are  more  susceptible  than  scrubs.  In  an  outbreak 
of  cholera  among  ducks,  studied  in  the  author's  laboratory, 
the  disease  progressed  very  slowly.  Only  one  to  five  or  six 
ducks  died  in  the  course  of  a  week  in  the  flock  of  500. 

Postmortem  Findings. — Upon  opening  the  abdominal  cavity 
one  will  first  note  that  the  liver  is  greatly  enlarged,  very  dark 
in  color  and  tears  easily  (inflammation,  congestion  and  cloudy 
swelling)  ;  we  have  found  livers  that  weighed  as  much  as  120 
grams,  or  three  times  the  normal  weight.  The  intestines  are 
congested  and  contain  a  frothy  material,  dark  in  color.  There 
is  an  occasional  hemorrhage  in  the  lining  {mucosa)  of  the 
intestines.  The  spleen  may  be  enlarged  and  its  contents  soft. 
Small  hemorrhages  {petechiae)  may  be  found  in  the  heart,  its 
coverings  and  other  parts.  The  kidneys  are  dark,  enlarged 
and  soft  (active  and  passive  congestion  and  cloudy  swelling). 
The  blood  does  not  coagulate  readily  and  is  found,  upon  micro- 
scopic examination,  to  be  teeming  with  the  germs  causing  the 
disease   (Bacillus  avisepticus) . 

There  is  acute  hemorragie  inflammation  in  the  intestines 
and  lungs  in  association  with  small  hemorrhages  on  the 
serous  membranes  and  sometimes  a  fibrinous  exudate  of  the 
pericardium  and  other  serous  membranes.  Some  of  the  blood 
vessels  covering  the  intestines  are  injected  and  the  intestinal 
contents,  always  in  a  fluid  condition,  may  be  mixed  with  blood. 
The  mucous  lining  of  the  intestines  is  reddened,  particularly 
in  the  first  portion. 

The  lungs  may  be  congested  and  edematous  and  at  times 
contain  areas  of  croupous  hemorrhagic  pneumonia.  There 
may  be  a  fibrinous  pleuritis.  There  is  a  catarrhal  inflamma- 
tion of  the  upper  air  passages. 

Case   Report  on  Fowl  Cholera 

A  dead  duck  was  sent  to  the  laboratory  from  the  outbreak 
referred  to  above.  The  anatomical  lesions  found  in  the  carcass  were 
as  follows:  Hemorrhagic  areas  in  heart  and  epicardium;  inflamma- 
tion and  congestion  of  the  ceca,  and  congestion  of  the  other  por- 
tions of  the  intestines;  the  liver  enlarged,  weighing  eighty  grams, 
and  very  dark  in  color. 

Two  glycerin  agar  slants  were  inoculated  from  the  heart  blood 
and  from  the  liver.  Stained  smears  from  the  heart  blood  showed 
the  typical  polar-staining  Bacillus  avisepticus.  Pure  cultures  were 
obtained  from  the  inoculated  tubes.  A  pullet  weighing  two  pounds 
was  given  an  intraperitoneal  injection  of  ihe  twenty-four-hour  agar- 
slant  growth.  Twenty-four  hours  later  she  appeared  sick,  showing 
ruffled  feathers,  loss  of  appetite,  dullness,  head  and  tail  down  and 
temperature   108.2   degrees  Farenheit. 

An  examination  of  the  blood  revealed  the  following:  Hemoglobin. 
90  per  cent;    erythrocytes,   2,520,000;    leukocytes,   6,000    (hypoleuko- 


DISEASES  OF  TllK  J)1(;ESTIVE  TKWCT         109 

cytosis),  thrombocytes,  184,000.  The  differential  count  showed: 
eosinophiles,  37  per  cent;  neutrophiles,  2  per  cent;  lymphocytes, 
small.  52  per  cent,  large  5  per  cent;  mononuclear  lymphocytes,  4 
per  cent ;    mast  cells,  none. 

This  bird  died  at  the  end  of  sixty  hours.  At  the  autopsy  there 
was  noted  a  fibrinous  peritonitis;  some  petechiae  on  mucous  mem- 
branes; the  liver  enlarged,  dark  and  weighing  seventy-two  grams 
(thirty-five  grams  is  the  normal  weight  lor  a  bird  of  the  sir.e  of 
this  one).  From  the  blood  the  germ  was  isolated  in  pure  culture  as 
before. 

f\\''ard  found  in  experimental  cases  of  fowl  cholera  there  was 
a  destruction  of  red  blood  cells  and  in  some  an  increase  of  white 
blood  cells — leukocytes.] 

In  describing  this  outbreak  among  ducks  the  owner  wrote  in 
part,  as  follows: 

"Regarding  the  success  I  have  had  in  the  treatment  of  cholera 
among  the  ducks  with  the  sulphocarbolates  of  sodium,  calcium,  /inc 
and  copper,  I  will,  as  best  I  can,  give  you  an  idea  as  to  the  results 
and  the  conditions  under  which  we  had  to  work. 

"To  begin  with  we  had  a  large  number  (about  500)  to  handle  and 
had  to  send  away  for  the  tablets,  which  delayed  us  in  beginning 
the  treatment  of  the  disease,  and,  of  course,  conditions  were  pretty 
bad  when  we  did  get  started. 

"Xext  we  ran  into  a  long  stretch  of  cold  weather,  the  feed  froze 
up  nearly  as  soon  as  we  put  it  out  in  the  troughs  if  it  was  moistened 
and  the  drug  mixed  with  it,  same  thing  happened  with  the  water, 
so  we  were  sure  that  the  ducks  were  not  getting  enough  of  the 
sulphocarbolates.  However,  the  death  rate  dropped  down  about 
one-fourth  in  two  weeks.  As  soon  as  the  weather  warmed  up  several 
snows  fell  at  intervals  of  about  a  week,  so  that  the  pens  were  wet 
and  it  was  hard  to  disinfect  them  and  difficult  to  keep  the  ducks 
from  drinking  the  water  that  stood  about  in  the  pens.  In  this 
way  they  avoided  getting  the  drug  that  was  dissolved  in  the  water 
in  their  drinking  fountains.  We  finally  got  around  that  by  sprink- 
ling the  yards  heavily  with  some  coal-tar  dip.  so  that  the  ducks 
would  not  drink  this  water,  but  would  go  to  the  fountains.  This 
was  made  rather  expensive  for  the  water  from  the  outside  would 
run  into  the  pens  and  soon  dilute  the  dip  already  out  so  that  the 
ducks  would  soon  be  drinking  this  water  again.  This  meant  more 
dip,  and  the  cost  of  the  dip  was  soon  an  important  item.  A  con- 
siderable quantity  of  the  sulphocarbolates  used  under  these  condi- 
tions was  wasted,  for  when  the  feed  or  water  would  freeze  we  had 
to  chop  it  out  of  the  troughs  and  thus  lose  some.  The  cost  of  what 
we  used  amounted  to  seven  cents  per  duck. 

"If  we  let  up  using  the  drug  the  ducks  would  begin  dying  again, 
but  I  do  not  think  it  had  a  fair  trial  during  the  first  part  of  the 
treatment.  As  soon  as  the  weather  got  better  the  death-rate  was 
lowered,  and  now  I  believe  we  have  the  disease  under  control. 
Tender  favorable  conditions  I  believe  this  means  of  controlling 
cholera  would  work  very  nicely.  That  it  will  render  a  flock  im- 
mune for  any  length  of  time  I  rather  doubt.  I  gave  my  chickens 
a  three  weeks'  round  of  the  treatment  and  for  a  month  now  they 
havp  been  all  right,  but  this  morning  I  noticed  a  few  of  them  acting 
as  if  they  were  in  the  cholera  business  again. 

Treatment:  Eradication. — The  prerms  are  found  in  the  dis- 
ohai'fire  from  the  bowel  and  are  carried  on  the  feet  into  feed 
and  water  troughs,  or  are  picked  up  from  the  ground  with  the 


no  POULTRY  DISEASES 

feedstuff.  Birds  should  lie  fed  out  of  troughs  frequently  dis- 
infected with  a  five  per  cent  solution  of  car])olic  acid,  and 
the  water  they  drink  should  be  similarly  guarded.  Sick  birds 
should  be  immediately  removed  from  the  flock  and  the  dead 
ones  cremated.  The  henhouse  and  nests  should  be  cleaned 
thoroughly  each  day  and  sprayed  with  whitewash  to  which 
sut^cient  crude  carbolic  acid  has  been  added  to  make  it  five 
per  cent  of  the  whole,  or  creso,  zenoleum  or  creolin  should  be 
used,  of  the  same  strength. 

A  type  of  spray  pump  convenient  for  applying  this  spray 
is  shown  in  Fig.  26.     The  henhouse  mav  also  be  disinfected 

CD  ». 

with  f ormaldehyd.  as  follows :  Close  tightly  all  doors,  win- 
dows, cracks  and  other  openings,  and  for  each  1,000  square 
feet  of  space  in  the  building,  use  twenty  ounces  formalin 
(torty  per  cent  f ormaldehyd)  and  sixteen  ounces  perman- 
ganate of  potash.  Place  these  two  materials  in  a  vessel  and 
place  in  the  middle  of  the  room  and  leave  for  several  hours. 
The  yard  should  be  cleaned  every  day.  If  the  yard  be  small 
it  may  be  disinfected  by  covering  it  with  straw  and  burning 
the  straw. 

For  the  birds  intestinal  antiseptics  are  indicated;  the  sul- 
phocarbolates  compound  in  one-half  grain  doses  twice  daily 
has  given  us  the  best  results.  Other  intestinal  antiseptics  are 
hydrochloric  acid,  one  teaspoonful  to  each  quart  of  water,  one 
per  cent  of  copperas  and  potassium  permanganate. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  three  of  the  tests  which  the  author 
made  of  the  30-grain  sulphocarbolates  compound  tablets. 

"One  flock  consisted  of  sixty  birds.  Several  were  sick  at  the  time 
treatment  was  commenced,  and  four  had  died.  The  discharge  from 
the  bowels  was  of  a  greenish-yellow  color,  somewhat  simulating 
fowl  cholera.  One  tablet  was  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  this 
fluid  mixed  with  bran  and  corn  chop.  The  mixture  was  then  fed 
in  clean  troughs.  In  this  way  each  bird  got  approximately  one- 
half  grain.  This  was  repeated  night  and  morning.  No  additional 
birds  became  sick;  only  two  of  the  sick  died:  and  the  rest  recovered. 

"Another  flock  consisted  of  ITo  baby  chicks.  As  soon  as  these 
birds  were  taken  from  the  incubator  they  were  fed  tne  unhacched 
eggs  that  had  been  cooked  and  chopped.  This  mixture  was  reported 
to  possess  an  offensive  odor.  The  birds  began  dying,  with  symptoms 
of  diarrhea,  white  pasty  vent;  weakness,  dullness,  drooping  wings, 
etc.;  one-half  the  flock  died  before  treatment  was  commenced. 
One-half  tablet  was  dissolved  in  warm  water  and  the  bread  satu- 
rated with  it.    The  birds  immediately  quit  dying. 

"Still  another  flock  consisted  of  200  birds,  including  a  few  tur- 
keys. Cholera  had  appeared  on  the  premises  the  fall  before.  The 
outbreak  was  studied  in  the  field  and  in  the  laboratory.  The 
cholera  germ  (Bacillus  aviscpticus)  was  isolated.  In  the  last  out- 
break fourteen  birds  had  died  and  several  were  sick.  Treatment 
similar  to  that  described  above  was  used.  Water  containing  the 
sulphocarbolates  was  kept  constantly  before  them.  No  more  birds 
were  taken  sick  and  no  more  died  after  the  sixth  day." 


DISKASKS  OF  TlIK  DKilvSTlVK  TRACT         111 

Vaeeinatioii  witli  a  vat'cine  made  from  the  germs  producing 
the  disease,  has  given  exeeUent  results. 

Seliolhe  states  a  serum  lias  been  i)i-('i)aredj  but  that  it  ren- 
ders immunity  only  for  about  two  weeks. 

Kitt  has  shown  that  the  blootl  of  chickens  immunized  against 
I'hicken  cholera  has  innnunizing  effects  uj)on  liealtiiy  chickens. 
He  has  also  shown  that  the  white  and  yolk  of  eggs  of  innnune 
chickens  possess  similar  effects. 

He  has  tried  innnune  serum  from  horses  imnmnized  against 
the  Bacillus  avisepticus  but  did  not  have  uniform  results  in 
producing  passive  immunity  with  the  immnniz(^d  horse  serum. 

ENTEROHEPATITIS  (BLACKHEAD) 

This  is  essentially  a  disease  of  turkeys,  among  the  young 
of  which  it  is  quickly  fatal.  It  has  jiractically  annihilated  the 
turkey-raising  industry  in  sections  where  it  was  formerly 
l)rotita])le  and  carried  on  extensively.  Although  the  turkej'' 
is  more  susceptible  to  blackhead  than  any  other  bird,  serious 
losses  among  chickens  sometimes  occur. 

Cause. — This  disease  is  claimed  by  Dr.  Theo.  Smith,  for- 
merly of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  to  be  due  to  a  pro- 
tozoon  (Aineba  meleagridis),  microscopic  in  size,  which  is 
found  in  the  diseased  areas  in  the  ceca  (blind  pouches)  and 
liver  of  affected  birds,  which  are  chieflv  turkevs  and  rarely 
chickens.  Others  attribute  the  disease  to  a  coccidium.  The 
protozoon  is  purely  a  connective  tissue  parasite  and  does  not 
enter  epithelial  cells  at  any  time,  as  a  coccidium. 

Mode  of  Spread. — As  will  be  seen  later,  the  protozoon  es- 
capes from  ulcers  in  the  ceca  and  passes  out  with  the  feces. 
Food  or  water  contaminated  with  the  excrements  carry  the 
disease  germ  to  other  birds.  Chronic  cases  (carriers)  in  older 
turkeys  or  chickens  may  keep  the  premises  infected  for  a  long 
time.  These  germs  entering  the  liver  and  the  mucous  mem- 
brane lining  the  ceca,  cause  intlannnation  and  degeneration. 
Usually  the  ceca  become  infected  first  and  later  the  liver  is 
invaded  and  intiannnation  of  its  structure  ensues. 

Postmortem  Finrlings. — Upon  first  opening  the  abdominal  cavity 
one's  attention  is  attracted  by  the  enlarged  liver  with  areas  of  dead 
tissue  (caseation  necrosis).  Fig.  45  shows  a  liver  about  three- 
fourths  natural  size.  wci.ij;hing-  nearly  one  pound. 

The  ceca  (blind  pouches;  see  Fig-  2,  No.  ii'i.  one  or  both,  are 
noted  to  be  enlarged;  the  enlargement  is  usually  a  short  distance 
from  the  point.  Upon  opening  the  ceca,  ulcers  and  areas  of  dead 
tissue  (caseation  necrosis)  are  observed  in  tlie  mucous  lining.  There 
will  also  be  noted  a  straw-colored  fiuid  (edema,  dropsy)  in  the 
loose   tissue  about   the   heart. 

Fig.  46.  taken  from  an  area  in  the  edge  of  the  ncrotic  portion 
marked  B,   in  Fig.   45.   illustrates  the  condition.     A   illustrates  the 


112 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


liver  cells  as  they  are  first  affected  (cloudy  swelling);  B,  the  cells 
farther  along  in  the  disease  process,  in  which  it  may  be  noted  that 
the  nucleus  has  disappeared  and  the  cell  is  disintegrating  (necro- 
sis) ;   C,  the  congested  vessels   (passive  congestion);    D,  white  blood 

'cells     (eosinophiles)     referred 


may  also  be 
areas     giant 


to  above.     There 
noted     in     these 
cells. 

Fig.  47,  b,  illustrates  a  giant 
cell;  a,  protozoa  causing  the 
disease.  A  like  microscopic 
examination  of  sections  from 
the  kidneys  indicates  that 
poisonous  products  have  been 
taken  up  by  the  blood,  for  in 
these  sections  we  find  degen- 
erative changes  (congestion, 
cloudy  swelling  and  focal  ne- 
crosis). 

Fig.  48  shows  a  microscopic 
field  from  a  blood  smear  from 
a  turkey  affected  by  entero- 
hepatitis.  It  will  be  noted 
that  there  is  an  intense  eosino- 
philia.  Fig.  49  shows  a  field 
from  a  portion  of  the  kidney, 
in  a  state  of  cloudy  swelling 
and  focal  necrosis — evidence 
of  absorbed  poisonous  sub- 
stance. Fig.  50  shows  one  of 
the  ceca  with  a  small  ulcer- 
ation caused   by  the  protozoa. 

Symptoms. — Enterohepa- 
titis  is  common  in  turkeys 
between  the  ages  of  one  month  and  one  year,  although  I  have 
seen  the  disease  in  birds  that  were  much  ohier.  Several  out- 
breaks have  been  studied  in  this  laboratory.  Only  one  ease 
was  found  in  the  hen.    It  has  been  reported  in  the  peacock. 

The  symptoms  are  not  manifest  till  the  disease  has  pro- 
gressed to  a  considerable  extent.  The  bird  is  first  noticed  to 
be  dull,  later  the  wings  and  tail  may  droop;  the  feathers 
become  ruffled  and  the  bird  sits  around  much  of  the  time; 
diarrhea  sui)ervenes,  the  discharge  being  of  a  greenish-yellow 
color;  there  is  a  loss  of  appetite;  the  bird  grows  gradually 
weaker,  showing  muscular  weakness,  droopy  wings,  and  usu- 
ally dies  in  from  three  to  ten  days  after  the  first  symptoms 
of  the  disease  become  noticea])le.  In  the  cases  that  run  hmger 
the  l)ird  liecomes  emaciated.  The  head  nuiy  or  may  not  \\irn 
purple.  Prom  the  cases  in  which  the  head  turns  purple  the 
disea.se  gets  its  name — blackhead. 

Although  turkeys  of  all  ages  are  susceptible  to  blackhead, 
youth   suffers    most.      Cases  seldom   appear  before  the   thir- 


Fig.   45.     Enterohepatitis  Ix  a  Turkey. 
A,    yellowish-white    necrotic    areas.      This 
liver  weighed  452  grams,  nearly   one  pound. 


ms;EASES  OF  TTTK  I^KIESiTlVK  TRA("r        113 

tccntli  (lay.  Tlic  most  critical  jx'i-iod  ])('«,niis  a1  al)()ut  the 
tlii?-ly-fit'(li  (lay  at'tci-  liatcliinu-.  V()un«,'  poults  are  ol)sorved 
to  he  sick  no  more  than  four  to  six  (hiys.  While  old  hii-ds 
may  i-ccovci".   youuir   hirds   |)rol)al»ly  never  do. 

Report  of  a  Case  of  Blackhead 

Of  eleven  turkeys  of  the  flock,  six  had  died.  One  of  the  turkeys 
was  brought  to  the  laboratory  for  further  study.  The  turkey's 
head  was  purple:  there  was  a  loss  of  appetite:  a  diarrhea  was 
present  and  the  dischai'se  was  yellowisli-green  in  color.  A  blood 
study  showed  the  following:  Hemoglobin.  73  per  cent;  erythroc  vtes, 
2.000.000:  leukocytes,  73,000.  Differential  count:  eosinophiles,  86 
per  cent:  neuthrophiles.  1  per  cent;  lymphocytes,  n  per  cent:  mo- 
nonuclears, 1  per  cent;  mast  cells,  1  per  cent.  The  bird  died  and  an 
autopsy  was  held.     The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  findings: 


A^^ 


^-B 


Fig.   46.  Cloudy   Swelling   Due  to  E.nterohepatitis. 

This   Is    a    Section    From    "B"    in    Fig.    66. 

(Magnified    990   Times). 

A,  liver  cells  (cloudy  swelling);  B,  liver  cells  un- 
dergoing disintegration,  necrosis;  C,  congested  blood 
vessel;  D,  white  blood  cells,  eosinophiles  abundant  in 
this  disease;  E,  protozoa  causing  the  disease. 

Xecrotic  areas  in  the  liver  measuring  up  to  four  centimeters  in 
diameter  and  of  a  yellowish-green  color.  Weight  of  the  liver,  452 
grams. 

Ulceration  of  one  cecum,  four  centimeters  from  the  cecal  end 
and  extending  three  cm.  in  length.  The  outer  surfaces  of  the  ceca 
showed  yellowish-green  coloration.  There  was  edema  in  the  peri- 
cardial region. 

Trtaimful. — 'rh()rou«ih  clcauinj;-  of  henhouse  and  yard,  fol- 
lowed hy  careful  disinfection;  care  as  to  feeding' and  waterin«r, 
and  intestinal  antiseptics  are  indicated  a.s  reconnnended  for 
fowl  cholera.  Tlie  followinfr  tablets  jrave  the  best  results  in 
our  experiments:  Sodium  sul|)hoearl)olate,  T^/o  grains;  cal- 
cium  sulphoearbolate,    TV-.'    grains;   zinc   sulphocarbolate,    15 


lU 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


grains.  Dissolve  one  tablet  in  each  quart  of  water.  Tlii> 
solution  can  be  given  as  drink  or  used  to  mix  with  soft  feed. 
It  has  long  been  known  that  milk  feeding  stimulates  rapid 
growth  in  poultry  as  in  all  other  animals.  It  has  also  been 
shown  that  milk  feeding  of  chicks  prevents  to  a  large  extent 
certain  intestinal  disorders.  The  same  stimulating  principle 
applies  to  turkeys  and  there  is  a  possibility  that  acidity  plays 


Fig.   47.    Section  of  the  Liver  from  a  Case  of  Blackhead. 
a,  protozoa  causing   the  disease;  b,  a  giant  cell. 


an  iiiii)ortaiit  role.  Since  the  greater  mortality  is  among 
young  poidts,  Iladley  has  recommended  a  limited  feeding  as 
follows:  First  48  hours  no  feed;  third  day,  chopped  egg  in- 
cluding shell  is  given  at  the  rate  of  two  grams  a  day.  The 
amount  of  egg  is  gradually  increased  till  the  end  of  the  tenth 
day,  then  gradually  decreased  mitil  the  end  of  the  second 
week,  Avhen  egg  feeding  is  discontinued.  The  fourth  day  green 
chopped  feed  such   as  lettuce  or   si)r<)u1c(l    oats 


IS   given    in 


DISEASES  OE  THE   DKiESTIVE  THA(n^         115 


inereasiut»-  amounts.  On  the  iiftli  day  rolled  oats  are  added 
and  diseontiiuied  at  the  end  oi'  the  sixth  week.  On  the  ninth 
day  mash  is  given  as  follows:  eorn  meal  (!  parts,  wheat  bran 
4  jsarts,  middlinjxs  2  ])arts,  and  linseed  meal  1  i)art.  Sour 
milk  should  he  given  throughout. 

The  following  scheme  of  feeding  ])()ults  has  been  suggested 
hy  liadley  as  a  means  of  aiding  in  warding  off  blackhead: 

1.  Hatch  the  turkey  eggs  in  incubator,  in  the  meantime  having 
hens  set  on  china  eggs  in  nest  boxes  or  brooders  on  the  permanent 
range. 

2.  Remove  the  poults  from  the  incubators  about  twenty-four 
hours  after  hatching,  and  disti'ibute  at  night  among  the  hens,  giv- 
ing from   twelve   to   fourteen  to 

each  hen.  Be  sure  to  see  that 
the  hen  accepts  them  before 
leaving  them, 

3.  Give  no  feeding  before  the 
poults  are  two  days  old.  Each 
family  may  then  receive  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  egg  chopped  tine 
with  some  green  feed  such  as 
nettles,  dandelion,  onion  tops  or 
lettuce.  A  little  cracker  may  be 
added  to  take  up  surplus  moist- 
ure so  that  the  mixture  will  not 
be  pasty. 

4.  This  ration  may  be  re- 
peated for  the  remainder  of  the 
feedings  upon  this  day,  or  bread 
soaked  in  sweet  milk  may  be 
substituted  for  the  meal. 

5.  During   the    first   three   or 


Fig.   4S. 


Blood  Sme.-vr  from 
Blackhead. 


A  Case  of 


four  days  of  feeding  the  poults 
receive  four  meals  each  day,  at 
about  eight  o'clock,  eleven,  two 
and  live;  after  this  but  three 
meals  are  given. 

6.     On    the   second    day   of   feeding   about 
given,  but  one  of  the  meals  may  be  of  chick 


Showing  intense  eosinoplulia;  a,  red 
blood  cells;  b,  eosinophiles:  c,  Lhrom- 
liocytes;  d,  lynip'iocytes;  e,  'nononuclear 
leukocytes. 


oats  may  be  added  to  the  chopped  egg 


the   same 
grain,  and 
mixture, 
second 


rations   are 
some  rolled 


the 


The  poults  are 


7.  The  third  day  of  feeding  is  like 
allowed  to  run  in  their  enclosure. 

8.  On  the  fourth  or  fifth  day  of  feeding,  the  number  of  meals 
may  be  reduced  to  three,  at  eight  o'clock',  twelve  and  five.  The 
amounts  are  slightly  increased  and  a  little  grit  may  be  added. 

9.  When  the  poults  are  about  a  week  old  they  may  be  allowed 
to  run  free  with  the  old  hen  on  the  range  on  pleasant  days  when 
the  grass  is  dry.  Chopped  egg  in  the  ration  is  reduced  and  omitted 
by  the  seventh  day  of  feeding. 

10.  On  the  sixth  day.  the  feeding  is  put  on  a  time  basis.  Sev- 
eral spoonfuls  of  feed  are  put  on  the  tray  and  well  distributed, 
but  the  poults  ai-e  not  allowed  to  eat  for  more  than  about  three 
minutes  at  any  one  meal. 

11.  By  the  end  of  the  second  week,  the  time  limit  is  reduceri  to 


ne 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


two  and  one-half  minutes,  since  the  poults  are  now  obtaining  more 
feed  on  the  range  in  the  form  of  insects. 

12.  About  the  same  time  sour  milk  is  introduced.  It  (whey  and 
curd  well  mixed)  is  placed  in  shallow  pans  or  in  troughs,  scattered 
about  the  range.  It  is  at  first  given  each  morning  and  night  at 
the  rate  of  about  one  quart  to  each  forty  poults,  and  is  gradually 
increased  in  amount  until  by  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  month 
one  quart  may  be  given  for  every  twenty  birds,  each  morning 
and  night. 

13.  During  the  second  month,  which  is  the  critical  period  for 
young  birds,  the  feeding  is  continued  about  as  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  first  month.  But,  after  the  age  of  about  six  weeks,  the 
number  of  meals  per  day  may  be  reduced  to  two.  Green  feed  in 
the  form  of  chopped  carrot  tops,  onion  tops,  or  lettuce  should  be 
given   in   abundance;    it   should   comprise   at   least   one-half   ot   the 


Fig.    49.     Section   of  a   Kidxey,   from    a  Turkey   That   Had 

Died  of  Blackhead. 
a,   cloudy   swelling;  b,  area   of  focal  necrosis. 

ration  for   each  meal.     The  time  limit  remains  at  about  two  and 
one-half  minutes. 

14.  When  the  poults  are  about  six  weeks  old  the  nest  or  brooder 
coops  should  be  replaced  by  larger  houses  made  of  lath  and  covered 
partly  with  roofing  paper.  Such  a  house  may  suffice  until  the 
poults  are  about  three  or  four  months  old.  These  may  be  about 
three  by  five  feet,  and  three  feet  high  at  the  apex.  Family  houses 
should  then  be  given  up  and  all  the  poults,  with  their  mothers,  be 
brought  together  in  a  single  roosting  shed. 

15.  The  feeding  for  the  third  month  is  like  that  of  the  second 
except  that  the  amount  of  milk  is  gradually  increased  and  that 
grain  mixture  of  eciual  parts  of  cracked  corn  and  wheat  may  be 
gradually  substituted  for  the  chick  grain. 

16.  As  the  autumn  months  advance  and  insect  life  disappears, 
the  time  limit  may  be  lengthened  to  three  or  three  and  one-half 
minutes.  In  rainy  weather  the  noon-day  meal  may  be  added  and 
a  four-minute  period  allowed.  Rolled  oats  may  be  omitted  and  the 
ration  made  to  consist  of  grain  mixture  with  an  occasional  feed 
of  rolled  oats  or  bread  and  milk.  A  mash  may  now  be  allowed 
containing  some  beef  scrap. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT        117 


Fig.  50.  Cecum  Showing  Ulcera- 
tion. FROM  A  Case  of  Enterohepatitis 
(blackhead)   in  a  Turkey. 

a,  ulceration;  c,  blind  end  of  cecum. 


17.     Before    Thanksgiving    the    breeders    for    the    coming    season 
should  be  selected  and  marked.     Their  feeding  for  the  winter  may 
consist  of  the  following  grain  mixture  fed  at  the  rate  of  one  quart 
for  six  or  seven  turkeys  each 
night    and    morning:     crackod 
corn    3    parts,    barley   2    parts, 
wheat  2  parts,  oats  1  part. 

The  owner  ot  a  tiock  of 
turkeys  in  wliicli  a  nunibei' 
were  affected  with  bhick- 
head  reported  to  the  aut'nor 
on  the  use  of  the  sulpho- 
carbolates  compound,  as  fol- 
lows: 

"Some  of  these  turkeys  were 
too  sick  to  eat.  In  these  cases 
a  small  piece  of  the  tablet,  one- 
half  the  size  of  a  sweet  pea, 
was  dissolved  and  given  twice 
a  day.  Nearly  all  of  the  birds 
so  treated  recovered." 

From  work  done  in  this  labo- 
ratory and  from  the  foregoing 

report  and  similar  reports  from  other  sources,  the  author  is  led  to 
believe  that  birds  may  recover  if  properly  medicated,  even  after 
some  degree  of  damage  is  done  to  the  liver  by  the  disease. 

NON-SPECIFIC  DIARRHEA— ENTERITIS— DYSENTERY 

The  most  devastatmg'  form  of  diarrhea  in  poultry  is  an 
infectious  disease  due  to  a  bacterium  or  to  protozoon,  and 
commonly  called  ''white  diarrhea."  It  affects  chiefly  chicks 
less  than  three  weeks  old  and  will  be  discussed  under  a  special 
head.  Under  this  head  I  shall  discuss  those  bowel  ailments 
not  due  to  any  one  specific  germ. 

A  condition  of  mild  diarrhea  is  chronic  in  many  fowls 
throughout  life.  In  these  cases  there  are  no  symptoms  of 
the  disease  other  than  the  softness  or  fluid  condition  of  the 
feces.  Though  this  condition  is  probably  due  to  a  mild  form 
of  indigestion  and  the  birds  may  not  thrive  or  fatten  or  lay 
as  well  as  those  not  so  affected,  the  condition  is  not  serious 
and  ordinarily  the  i")Oultryman  pays  no  attention  to  it. 

It  is  when  the  soft,  pasty  or  liipiid  excrement  has  an  of- 
fensive odor,  and  adheres  to  the  feathers  about  the  vent,  stain- 
ing them  yellowish,  greenish  or  brownish,  that  the  matter 
becomes  serious  and  interferes  with  the  health  of  the  bird. 
Young  stock  are  a  great  deal  more  susceptible  to  diarrhea 
from  unfavora])le  conditions,  of  which  the  commonest  are 
improper  food  and  exposure  to  cold,  than  are  adult  birds. 

"NYhen  this  reaction  to  external  influences  (cold)  or  when 
the  irritation  from  indigestible  matter  within  the  intestine  be- 


118 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


comes  severe  enouo-h  to  set  up  an  infiaiiiuiatioii  of  the  mucous 
lining  of  the  small  intestines,  it  is  termed  enteritis,  and  when 
it  extends  to  the  large  intestines  it  is  called  dysentery.  In 
both  conditions  there  is  an  increased  thirst,  loss  of  appetite, 
high  fever  and  fluid  discharge,  and  in  the  latter  the  discharges 
are  streaked  with  blood. 

Cause. — ]\Ioldy,  putrid,  or  too  stimulating  food,  drinking 
water  which  contains  much  organic  matter,  and  hence  is  filthy 
and  putrid,  and  exposure  to  certain  unfavorable  atmospheric 
conditions  are  contributing  factors,  as  is  also  the  injection  of 

irritant  substances,  such  as 
lye,  paint,  spray-mixtures, 
unslaked  lime,  etc. 

Along  with  diarrhea  due 
to  these  causes  may  be 
mentioned  a  like  condition 
sometimes  caused  by  the 
presence  in  the  intestinal 
tract  of  certain  species  of 
worms  and  of  irritating 
foods.  Exposure  in  damp 
coops,  cold  rains,  or 
draughts  often  results  in 
digestive  derangements  of 
this  nature.  A  bird,  dur- 
ing molting,  has  poor  pro- 
tection against  inclement 
weather,  from  lack  of 
feathers,  and  requires 
more  care  than  at  other 
times. 

Symptoms. — The  plum- 
age loses  its  smooth,  well- 
kept  appearance ;  the  bird 
is  depressed  and  not  inclined  to  move  about  as  nuich  as 
usual ;  there  may  be  loss  of  appetite :  the  crop  is  full ;  diges- 
tion is  slow;  the  cloaca  is  inriamed  (red)  and  sensitive; 
the  evacuations  from  the  bowels  are  frequent,  the  discharges 
being  fluid,  offensive  and  varying  in  color  from  whitish- 
yellow  to  greenish.  In  later  stages  the  evacuations  are 
quite  spasmodic  and  forcefully  ejected  (squirting)  and  the 
fluff  and  feathers  near  the  vent  are  soiled  with  feces.  The 
affected  l)ird  gradually  becomes  weaker  and  there  is  a  rise  in 
temperature.  It  may  eat  little  or  nothing;  thirst  is  extreme 
in  some  cases.  The  bird  may  die  in  two  or  three  days  or  it 
may  live  for  two  or  three  weeks. 


Fig.  51.    Hemorrhagic  Enteritis  in  a  Hen. 
A,   small  hemorrhages    Cnaliual   size). 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DKiESTlVE  TRACT        119 

Postmortem  Findings. — In  fatal  cases  the  most  noticeable 
alterations  are  in  the  intestinal  tract  and  the  liver.  Upon 
opening  the  small  intestines,  areas  of  inthnnmation  are  noted, 
and  occasionally  a  small  hemorrhagre  is  fonnd.  ^licroscopic 
examination  of  stained  sections  from  the  vital  oro:ans  (liver, 
kidney,  etc.)  reveals  retrogressive  changes;  clondy  swelling 
being  most  marked.     Fig.  51  illnstrates  one  of  these  cases. 

Treat^nent. — Give  the  same  treatment  as  that  given  for 
blackhead  in  turkeys  and  for  fowl  cholera.  A  diet  of  sonr 
milk  is  helpful.     (See  white  diarrhea,  page  124.) 

WHITE  DIARRHEA 

The  loss  to  American  poultry  raisers  from  white  diai-rhea 
is  greater  than  from  anything  else,  perhaps  greater  than  from 
all  other  infectious  diseases  combined.  It  strikes  at  the  root 
of  the  poultry  industry;  no  one  can  successfully  conduct  the 
business  if  he  is  unable  to  rear  a  reasonalile  number  of  chicks 
annuallv. 

AYithout  treatment  the  resulting  mortality,  when  white 
diarrhea  has  secured  a  foothold  in  a  poultr}^  plant,  is  ex- 
tremely high,  often  reaching  ninety  per  cent  of  the  season's 
hatch.  The  loss  from  white  diarrhea  in  dollars  and  cents  is 
enormous,  almost  beyond  calculation.  It  is  widespread  through- 
out the  United  States  and  causes  the  loss  of  perhaps  ten  per 
cent  of  all  the  chicks  hatched  in  this  country.  By  proper  meas- 
ures the  disease  is  fairly  easily  preventable  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  the  affected  chicks  will  recover  under  proper  treatment. 

Causes. — There  are  two  forms  of  white  diarrhea,  due  to 
two  distinct  causes.  A  bacillary  form  due  to  the  Bacterium 
pullorxim,  a  rather  short,  plump,  rodshaped  germ  with  rounded 
ends;  and  a  protozoal  form  due  to  the  Coccidium  tenellum. 
I  have  isolated  the  germ  causing  the  disease  from  the  liver, 
spleen,  kidneys  and  other  organs  of  chicks  dead  of  the  bacil- 
lary form  of  the  disease,  and  in  the  coccidian  form  from  the 
ulcers  of  the  cecum  and  the  intestines. 

Symptoms:  BaciUanj  Form. — In  young  chicks  there  is 
drooping  Avings,  ruffled  feathers,  sleepy  appearance,  huddled 
together,  little  or  no  appetite,  abdominal  yolk  not  properly 
absorbing;  whitish  or  whitish-brown  frothy  dscharge  from 
bowel  which  adheres  more  or  less  to  the  vent  fluff ;  eyes  closed 
part  of  the  time  and  apparently  no  interest  in  life.  "Peep- 
ing" much  of  the  time,  the  appearance  in  many  is  stilty,  ab- 
domen prominent  behind.  In  these  cases  after  death  one 
finds  the  yolk  unabsorbed  or  only  partially  so.  The  intes- 
tines are  more  or  less  full.  Late  fall,  winter  or  early  spring 
hatched    chicks    are    freer   from    the    disease   than    summer 


120  POULTRY  DISEASES 

hatched.  This  may  be  explained  l)y  tlie  fact  that  hens  with 
diseased  ovaries  gradually  become  poorer  layers  as  the  disease 
processes  advance,  and  lience,  only  lay  in  late  spring  or  early 
summer,  when  nature  intends  reproduction  of  birds.  Finally 
the  hen  may  cease  laying. 

Symptoms:  Cocciclian  Form. — The  symptoms,  as  I  have 
seen  them,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  bacillary  form,  except- 
ing, as  a  rule,  the  heavy  death  rate  takes  place  later. 

Mode  of  Spread:  Bacillary  i^orm.— Ovaries  of  laying  hens, 
diseased,  but  still  functioning,  may  be  infected  by  the  germ. 
The  germ  can  be  isolated,  particularly  from  the  yolk,  of  at 
least  some  of  the  eggs  formed  in  such  an  ovary.  The  chicks 
from  infected  eggs,  as  a  result,  have  the  disease  more  or  less 
developed  when  they  are  hatched,  as  conditions  which  favor 
hatching  also  favor  the  multiplication  of  the  germs  to  an  ex- 
tent that  toxins  (poisons)  have  already  been  produced  in  the 
young  in  sufficient  quantity  for  the  disease  to  at  least  mani- 
fest itself  in  a  few  hours  after  hatching,  although  ordinarily 
they  do  not  begin  to  die  until  they  are  about  a  week  old. 

The  whitish,  frothy,  pasty  bowel  discharge,  more  or  less 
sticky  and  having  a  tendency  to  "paste  up  the  vent,"  from 
these  chicks  is  laden  with  the  germs,  and  others  of  the  flock 
soon  become  infected  from  contaminated  food  picked  up  from 
the  ground.  In  the  former  case,  chicks  may  begin  to  die  soon 
after  hatching;  in  the  latter,  in  from  three  to  four  days,  a 
few  dying  each  day. 

The  death  rate  is  high,  reaching  in  many  cases  as  much  as 
seventy-five  per  cent  or  more.  Those  that  recover  are  stunted 
and  do  not  make  satisfactory  growth.  The  greatest  loss  is 
from  the  first  few  days  to,  in  some  cases,  two  or  three  weeks. 
It  is  probable  that  the  carriers  are  chicks  that  have  recovered, 
but  which  still  carry  the  organism  (especially  in  the  ovary) 
as  the  human  typhoid  carriers  carry  the  germs  of  typhoid 
fever,  in  the  infected  kidneys  and  in  bowel  ulcers.  These  ' '  car- 
riers," having  established  an  immunity,  do  not  themselves 
succumb  to  the  disease,  and  they  rarely  show  any  outward 
symptoms  of  it. 

"  Insanitary  conditions,  spoiled  feed,  dirty,  stagnant  water, 
improperly  ventiUited  incubators,  brooders  and  buihlings,^  or 
badly  regulated  heat,  are  factors  in  weakening  the  physical 
condition  of  chicks  and  favor  ravages  of  diseases. 

Coccidian  Form.— The  mode  of  spread  of  this  form  is  at 
present  prol)lematical.  It  is  possible  that  a  chronic  type  of 
coccidiosis  occurs  in  some  bii-ds  and  thus  perpetuates  and 
disseminates  the  protozoa. 

Postmortem  Findings:  bacillary  form. — The  liver  in  general  is 


DISEASES  OP  THE  DKJESTIVE  TRACT        .121 

usually  pale,  showiug  areas  of  congestion  (active  and  passive  con- 
gestion and  cloudy  swelling).  The  yolk  is  only  partially  absorbed; 
congestion  of  the  intestines  may  or  may  not  be  present.  The 
kidneys  are  normal  in  size,  but  show  congestion  and  cloudy  swelling. 
The  carcass  is  more  or  less  pale,  emaciated  and  anemic. 

cocciDiAx  FORM. — Upou  postmortem  examination  the  conditions  are 
found  to  be  similar  to  those  in  the  bacillary  form,  except  there  will 
be  noted  more  or  less  congestion  of  the  intestinal  mucosa  (lining), 
and  ulcers  in  the  intestines,  principally  the  ceca.  The  ceca  appear 
to  contain  considerable  ingesta.  and  to  be  interfered  with  func- 
tionally. 

Fig.  52  shows  a  transverse  section  through  an  ulcerated  area. 
In  these  areas  we  find  cloudy  sw^elling,  followed  by  necrosis  (retro- 
gressive changes  and  death  of  the  cells).  The  remains  of  the  dead 
cells  form  a  cheesy  mass  (caseation  necrosis).  It  will  be  noted 
in  this  drawing  that  only  remnants  of  a  few  of  the  glands  normally 
present  are  yet  intact,  the  remainder  of  the  mucous  membrane  and 
in  places  the  submucous  layers  are  invaded  by  the  germ  (protozoon). 
In  Fig.  53  the  section  B  has  been  magnified  900  times. 

As  explained  under  the  cut,  all  stages  of  the  coccidium  tenellum 
are  observed  in  a  mass  of  dying  and  disintegrating  cells — the  re- 
mains of  the  diseased  mucous  lining  of  the  bowel.  Repeated  exami- 
nations nave  been  made  of  healthy  chicks  killed  for  the  purpose, 
and  chicks  dying  from  other  causes,  and  thus  far  no  case  has  shown 
these  conditions. 

In  the  establishment  of  the  fact  that  the  hen  may  become  chronic- 
ally infected  by  the  Bacterium  pullorum.  it  also  means  that  she 
is  one  of  the  main  sources  of  infection  through  the  eggs  she  forms 
and  lays.  She  may  remain  chronically  infected  following  a  case  of 
white  diarrhea  w^hile  a  baby  chick  or  she  may  acquire  the  infection 
after  she  is  mature.  This  acquisition  may  be  by  consuming  con- 
taminated food.  The  permanent  seat  of  infection  appears  to  be 
the  ovary,  which  in  many  instances  becomes  so  greatly  involved 
that  the  ova  are  discolored  and  misshapen,  and  the  ovary  presents 
a  decidedly  pathological  appearance.  The  ova  harbor  the  disease 
organism.  Ova  which  develop  apparently  normal  yolks  frequently 
carry  the  organism.  Bacterium  pullorum,  to  the  time  of  full  forma- 
tion of  the  egg.  Infected  eggs  produce  infected  chicks  and  although 
infected  chicks  frequently  succumb  before  their  embryonic  develop- 
ment is  completed  or  before  they  pip  out  of  the  shell  (dead  germs), 
a  large  percentage  of  them  emerge  from  the  shell  apparently  sound 
and  well.  However,  they  soon  acquire  the  disease  and  many  of 
them  fall  prey  to  the  organism  which  they  carried  for  a  long  time 
in  their  yolk.  These  chicks  are  a  constant  source  of  infection  to 
other  chicks  and  to  the  mature  stock. 

A  system  has  been  developpfi  to  test  the  hens  to  determine  if 
they  are  bacillary  carriers.  This  consists  of  applying  the  agglu- 
tination test. 

.Jones  in  1912  reports  an  outbreak  of  a  disease  among  adult 
fowls  from  which  the  Bacterium  pullorum  was  isolated  and  to  which 
he  attributed  the  disease.  Among  700  hens  the  mortality  w^as  50 
per  cent.  There  had  been  no  history  of  bacillary  white  diarrhea 
on  the  farm.  A  neighbor  had  been  meeting  with  serious  losses, 
however,  and  a  number  of  eggs  from  his  fowls  were  incubated  on 
the  farm  which  had  hitherto  been  free  from  the  disease.  Nearly 
all  the  chicks  that  were  hatched  from  these  eggs  died  w'ithin  ten  days 
from  bacillary  white  diarrhea.  The  eggs  that  failed  to  hatch  were 
inadvertently  fed  to  adult  hens.     In  these  dead  hens  the  Bacterium 


122 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


pullorum  was  isolated  from  various  internal  organs,  as  well  as  from 
chicks  hatclLed  from  the  neighbor's  eggs. 

Retger,  Hull  and  Sturges  report  three  fowls  out  of  twelve  dying 
following  feeding  boullion  cultures  of  the  Bacterium  pullorum. 
These  cultures  were  fed  along  with  the  regular  mash.  The  Bac- 
terium pullorum  was  isolated  from  the  liver,  lungs,  heart  and  spleen. 
T'hey  attributed  death  to  these  organisms. 

Smith  and  Ten  Broeck  report  that  bacterium-free  filtrates  of 
^ve  to  fifteen  day  old  bouillon  cultures  of  Bacterium  pullorum 
were  decidedly  toxic  to  full  grown  rabbits  when  given  by  intraven- 
ous injections.  Death  followed  within  two  hours,  or  there  was 
marked  dyspnea,  followed  by  death  over  night  or  by  loss  of  weight 
find  subsequent  recovery. 


Fig.  52.    Section  Through  Cecum 
(Magnified    100    Times). 

From  a  chick  that  had  died  of 
coccidian  white  diarrhea.  A,  mus- 
cular layer;  B,  remnant  of  gland; 
C,  degenerated  disintegrating  mass. 
There  is  complete  destruction  of 
the  mucous  membrane. 


Fig.    53.    Section   "B"    in   Fig. 
(Magnified  900  Times). 

Shows  various  stages  of  the  Coc- 
cidium  tenellum.  A,  oocyst;  B, 
sporoblast,  first  stage;  C,  sporozoit, 
first  stage;  D,  schizont,  merozoites 
within,  surrounded  by  a  disinte- 
grating cell  mass;  E,  polymorpho- 
nuclear leukocyte. 


Gauge  reports  that  rabbits  are  very  susceptible  to  very  small 
doses  of  the  Bacterium  pullorum  by  subcutaneous  injections. 

Retger,  Hull  and  Sturges  in  a  summary  of  their  work  state  that 
eggs  that  harbor  Bacterium  pullorum  in  the  yolk  in  large  numbers 
may  produce  abnormal  conditions,  when  fed,  not  only  in  young 
chicks,  but  in  adult  fowls,  young  rabbits,  guinea  pigs  and  kittens. 

When  infected  eggs  are  allowed  to  remain  under  the  hen  in  nests 
for  a  considerable  time  or  in  warm  rooms  during  storage  and  in 
transit,  these  bacteria  rapidly  increase  in  numbers.  In  a  poultry 
survey  as  to  the  prevalence  of  bacillary  carriers  among  hens,  it 
was  found  in  Connecticut  that  out  of  107  flocks  subjected  to  the 
agglutination  tests,  1,417  out  of  13,831  fowls  reacted;  that  is  10.24 
per  cent  gave  positive  reactions  and  of  the  flocks  74  per  cent  were 
infected.  In  ^Massachusetts  more  than  50  per  cent  in  some  flocks 
reacted. 


DISEASES  OF  TllK   DKIKSTIVK  TILVCT         12:3 

Treatment. — The  most  of  our  exjxM'iniontal  work  with  vari- 
ous remedies  has  been  with  the  coccidiaii  form.  In  one  out- 
break, referred  to  above,  80  per  cent  of  the  tirst  hatch  of  2,000 
chicks  had  died.  AVe  began  trying  to  improve  sanitary  condi- 
tions, and  administered  vai'ious  dilutions  of  permanganate  of 
potash,  copperas  and  carliolic  acid.  The  loss  was  unaffected. 
Bv  this  time  tlie  writer  had  examined  manv  dozen  l)irds  in  the 
laboratory,  and  in  about  50  per  cent  of  the  cases,  the  Bacte- 
rium pullorum  was  isolated  frOm  the  lieart  blood,  liver,  spleen 
and  kidneys,  and  in  every  case  the  coccidian  ulcers,  described 
above,  were  observed. 

These  chicks  began  dying  in  numbers  at  about  ten  days  of 
age,  very  few  had  died  before  that  time,  and  from  this  period 
to  the  end  of  the  third  week  the  greatest  loss  occurred.  After 
this  time  but  few  died,  but  those  having  the  disease  in  light 
form  were  stunted  and  did  not  make  satisfactory  growth. 
With  this  data  now  before  me,  I  began  on  another  line  of 
treatment. 

During  the  past  ten  years  I  have  used,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  dilutions  of  mercuric  chloric!  (corrosive  sublimate)  as 
an  intestinal  antiseptic  in  chickens.  This  was  used,  in  this 
outbreak,  in  a  solution  of  1 :  10,000,  with  sulphocarbolates  of 
zinc,  sodium  and  calcium.  The  latter  had  net  given  the  satis- 
factory results  when  used  alone  that  it  had  in  treatment  of 
diarrhea  in  colts  and  calves. 

Jones  (Cornell)  has  shown  that  a  solution  of  1  :  1,000  (one- 
tenth  of  one  per  cent)  bichlorid  of  mercury,  will  kill  the  B. 
pullorum  in  thirty  seconds;  a  one  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solu- 
tion requires  five  minutes  in  which  to  kill  this  germ ;  one  per 
cent  creolin  recpiires  five  minutes;  three  and  one-third  per 
cent  lactic  acid  kills  it  in  five  minutes,  and  five  per  cent  car- 
bolic acid  kills  it  in  thirty  seconds.  IMercuric  chlorid  is  there- 
fore fifty  times  as  effective  against  this  germ  as  is  carbolic 
acid. 

Instructions  were  given  for  the  incubators  (containing  also 
the  nursery  trays)  to  be  tightly  closed  and  fumigated  with 
formaldehyd  gas,  as  ropommond(Ml  undei'  chicken  cholera, 
before  filling  with  eggs. 

After  chicks  were  hatched  they  were  not  to  receive  any 
feed  for  forty-eight  to  seventy-two  liours.  as  the  yolk  con- 
tained in  their  abdominal  cavity  will  furnish  food  for  that 
length  of  time,  and  an  engorgement  of  the  intestines  might 
impinge  on  this  part  and  interfere  with  its  absorption  by  press 
ing  on  the  absor])ing  vessels. 

The  following  solution  was  to  be  ke{)t  ])efore  them  from 
the  time  of  hatching  to  four  weeks  of  age,  and  then  given 


124 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


twice  a  week  for  the  next  few  weeks:  Zinc  sulphocarbolate, 
fifteen  grains;  sodium  and  calcium  sulphocarbolate,  of  each 
seven  and  one-half  grains;  bichlorid  of  mercury,  six  grains, 
and  citric  acid,  three  grains.  This  quantity  was  dissolved  in 
a  gallon  of  water.  The  result  was  that  eighty  per  cent  of  the 
next  hatch  was  saved. 

A  diet  of  sour  milk  in  white  diarrhea  and  other  bowel  ail- 
ments, of  a  similar  nature,  has  given  excellent  results.  ^  Cul- 
tures of  the  Bacillus  huhjaricus  in  milk  is  recommended  in  all 
diarrhea  of  birds.  Chicks  should  be  fed  sour  milk  as  soon  as 
hatched. 

TRICHOMONIASIS 

Trichomoniasis  of  chicks  has  recently  been  described.  The 
baby  chicks  are  attacked  at  the  age  of  10  to  14  days.  After 
four  weeks  old  they  are  immune.  Diarrhea  may  be  absent  in 
the  early  cases  but  present  in  later  stages  and  chronic  cases. 
The  acute  cases  die  in  from  one  to  two  days.  ]\Iore  vigorous 
birds  enter  the  chronic  stage. 

The  affected  chicks  droop,  huddle  together,  do  not  refuse 
to  eat,  wings  drag,  eyes  are  closed,  heads  pale,  temperature 
subnormal,  102°  Fah. 

At  autopsy  there  are  noted  no  lesions  except  an  anemic  con- 
dition. The  cecum  may  be 
slightly  enlarged  and  its 
contents  slimy  and  the 
crypts  in  the  mucosa  are 
found  to  be  filled  with  the 
Trichomonas  puUor'um. 

CROUPOUS    INFLAMMA- 
TION OF  THE  PIGEON 

There  is  a  condition  in 
pigeons  in  which  there  ap- 
pears a  mass  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  esophagus 
and  other  parts.  It  is  il- 
lustrated in  Fig  54.  The 
squabs  become  affected 
earlv,  and  a.s  the  diseased 
or  tumior-like  area  becomes 
larger,  due  to  the  accunui- 
hilion  of  crou])ous  exudate. 
the  bii'd  is  unable  to  eat  or  swallow.  The  loss  in  some  breed- 
ing establishments  is  considerable.     The  disease  area  mani- 


FiG.     34. 


Croupous    Inflammation 
Pigeon. 


IN      A 


A,   nccrosii-.g   mass   made   up  of  pus  cells, 
fibrin    and   debris. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DKJESTIVE  TRACT        125 

fests  itself  as  a  luiiip  in  the  throat  or  neck,  which  is  easily 
felt. 

Treatment. — Jl  will  be  necessary  to  keep  the  premises  thor- 
oughly clean,  constantly  disinfected,  washed  with  an  antisep- 
tic. The  trays  after  each  batch  of  squabs  need  to  be  cleaned 
and  disinfected,  as,  in  fact,  does  the  entire  building. 

Some  good  results  have  been  obtained  by  treating  these 
squabs  early  with  a  solution  of  iodin  applied  to  the  part  with 
a  swab  after  first  curetting  out  the  mass.  Also  other  anti- 
septics recommended  for  chicken  cholera  may  be  used.  If  the 
disease  has  progressed  very  far,  it  is  best  to  kill  the  squab 
and  cremate  it. 

A  condition  similar  to  this  has  been  called  canker.  The  following 
IS  the  experience  of  Dr.  E.  J.  Foreman  who  is  a  breeder  of  fine 
pigeons: 

"I  have  had  several  pigeons  die  of  this  trouble  or  a  trouble  similar 
to  the  condition  you  describe. 

"I  have  operated  on  a  number  by  making  a  free  incision  and  re- 
moving the  cheesy  deposit,  swabbing  out  the  cavity  with  iodin  after 
u  hich  they  make  a  nice  recovery.  The  beak  is  sometimes  deformed 
following  the  disease  and  treatment.  I  never  have  found  pus.  The 
mucous  membrane,  after  the  paste-like  substance  has  been  removed, 
is  usually  reddish  in  color  but  I  find  no  ulcer  underlying  it.  This 
trouble  develops  in  young  birds,  and  mostly  in  those  still  accepting 
feed  from  the  mother. 

"The  following  are  the  results  of  some  autopsies: 

"Case  1. — I  found  this  squab  dead  in  the  morning.  A  mass  of 
yellowish,  fibrinous  deposit  was  found  in  the  esophagus  at  a  point 
near  the  entrance  of  the  thorax.  There  was  nothing  visible  in  the 
mouth  or  nasal  chambers. 

"Case  2. — This  one  developed  a  large  tumefaction  above  the  left 
eye  which  caused  a  profuse  flow  of  tears.  An  incision  was  made 
above  the  eye  and  the  deposit  removed,  after  which  the  cavity  was 
swabbed  w'i'th  iodin.  There  was  a  second  exudate  in  the  roof  of 
the  mouth.  This  material  was  removed  and  the  part  swabbed  with 
iodin.    The  bird  made  a  complete  recovery. 

"Case  3. — There  was  a  very  large  swelling  in  the  cervical  region 
in  this  case.  A  free  incision  was  made  into  the  tumefaction  and 
the  large  deposit  of  putty-like  material  removed.  The  cavity  was 
swabbed  out  wnth  iodin  and  the  incision  sutured.  Partial  recovery 
followed,  but  there  appeared  a  small  mass  of  material  between  the 
edges  of  the  wound.  This  material  was  removed  and  the  part  again 
swabbed  with  iodin  and  the  bird  made  a  nice  recovery.  This  bird, 
though  recovering,  still  lacks  vigor  and  may  possibly  have  other 
affections. 

"Where  internal  lesions  appear  as  in  the  chest  cavity  or  abdominal 
cavity  the  bird  manifests  symptoms  of  'going  light.'  appears  languid, 
dull,  stupid,  losing  its  appetite,  gradually  becoming  emaciated  and 
finally  dying.     Tn  these  cases  usually  internal  lesions  may  be  found, 

"Case  4. — This  was  in  a  young  bird  that  had  escaped  from  the 
nest.  Its  head  was  bady  lacerated  by  the  old  birds  picking  it.  There 
was  no  indication  of  canker.     After  several  days  the  bird  died  and 


126  -  POULTRY  DISEASES 

at  autopsy  showed  a  large  mass  at  the  lower  part  of  the  crop. 
There  was  almost  a  continuous  layer  extending  over  the  mucous 
membrane  from  the  larvnx  to  the  bronchi.  At  the  point  of  entrance 
of  the  lungs  by  the  bronchi,  there  were  observed  greenish  gan- 
grenous spors.  The  lower  bowel  was  filled  with  a  soft,  greenish 
white  fecal  matter. 

"Case  5.— The  symptoms  of  this  bird  were  those  of  going  light. 
This  bird  appeared  rather  full  between  the  anus  and  sternum.  Upon 
making  an  incision  the  intestines  and  liver  were  apparently  forced 
out  of  the  opening.  The  liver  was  enormously  enlarged.  The  center 
was  filled  with  a  large  cheesy  mass,  deep  yellow  or  orange  in  color. 
There  were  small  spots  of  this  substance  throughout  the  liver.  There 
were  also  deposits  along  the  course  of  the  intestines. 

"Case  6;— This  bird  passed  through  the  typical  symptoms  of  going 
light.  Great  marasmus  and  cachexia.  There  was  no  indication  of 
cheesv  matter  in  the  mouth  or  head.  The  usual  whitish  fecal  matter 
was  found  in  the  lower  bowel.  The  skin  appeared  leathery  and 
dark.  The  abdominal  cavity  was  crowded  as  in  case  No.  5.  The 
entire  abdominal  cavity  was  covered  with  material  which  was  closely 
adherent  and  seemed  very  tough. 

"In  these  birds  there  appears  to  be  no  rise  in  temperature.  The 
average  temperature  of  old  birds  is  about  108  degrees  Fahrenheit 
and  of  squabs  as  soon  as  they  leave  the  nest  perhaps  a  trifle  higher. 
Squabs  in  the  nest  appear  to  have  a  trifle  lower  temperature  than 
those  that  have  left  the  nest.  The  hen  with  squabs  just  hatched  per- 
haps runs  a  trifle  higher." 

In  a  study  of  the  lesion  of  the  esophagus  of  the  squab  there  was 
found  that  the  underlying  structures,  in  this  case  connective  tissue 
in  the  throat  region,  was  invaded  with  polymorphonuclear  leukocytes 
and  Impyhocytes.  Farther  along  there  is  but  a  mass  of  leukocytes 
which  have  now  become  pus  cells  and  finally  a  piled  up  mass  of.  at 
first  caseating  pus  cells  in  different  stages  of  disintegration,  and  then 
simply  a  homogeneous  mass  which  stains  uniformly  pink  with  the 
hematoxylon-eosin  stain.  Like  in  the  fowl,  pus  in  the  pigeon  is  not 
liquid  or  semi-liquid  but  of  a  cheesy  nature. 

Treatment. — I  have  successfully  treated  some  of  these  cases 
by  curetting  out  the  throat  which  is  made  possible  by  grasp- 
ing the  throat  below  the  tumefaction  and  forcing  it  upward, 
then  inserting  through  the  mouth  the  curette  and  removing 
the  cheesy  mass.  Then  this  part  is  injected  by  means  of  a 
dropping  pipette  with  iodin.  ah-ohol  or  what  is  acting  very 
nicely  is  the  menthol,  oil  eucalyptus  and  oil  thyme  given 
under  roup  treatment.  A  similar  disease  has  been  studied  in 
the  fowl,  in  wliich  cases  the  croupous  mass  accuunilates  in  the 
pharyngeal  region  and  can  l)e  easily  scraped  olf.  The  parts 
are  then  treated  the  same  as  in  the  pigeon. 

COCCIDIOSIS   IN   WILD   DUCKS 

Two  wild  ducks  (mallai'ds)  were  sent  to  the  laboratory  by 
the  game  warden  of  Colorado  during  the  fall  of  1910,  with 
tlie  history  lliat  thev  had  been  found  dead  on  a  i-eservoir,  and 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIOESTTVE  TRACT         127 


.^  ,. 

H 

E  .  ^^^ 

m 

MH^if 

mk 

[  1 

--B 

a"^^"        W 

tliat  tlie  wild  ducks  were  dying  in  large  numbers.  A  careful 
ciutopsy  was  held  on  these  birds.  There  were  small  pearl-like 
nodule's  throughout  the  lung  of  one  of  the  ducks,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  55.  Both  sliowod  ulcerations  of  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  intestiiud  tract.  These  ulcerations  were  numerous,  as 
many  as  eight  or  ten  in  each  bird,  aiul  extended  the  entire 
U'ngth  of  the  intestines.  Fig.  56  illustrates  this  condition. 
Upon  microscopic  exami- 
nation of  these  lesions,  as 
well  as  of  the  lung  nod- 
ules, coccidia  were  noted 
which  reseml)led  the  Coc- 
cidiiim  tenellum,  one  of 
the  specific  causes  of  white 
diarrhea  in  chicks. 

PROTOZOAL  HEPATITIS 
OF   PIGEONS 

Rivolta  found  a  proto- 
zoan provided  with  one  or 
two  tlagella  which  he 
called  Cercomonas  he  pat  is. 
These  protozoa  penetrate 
the  liver  of  the  pigeon  and 
produce  necrotic  areas. 
The  liver  appears  enlarged 
and  studded  with  greyish- 
yellow^  multiple  foci. 

Young  pigeons  may  die  suddenly  without  showing  symp- 
toms of  any  disease. 

RENAL  COCCIDIOSIS 

The  Coccidium  avium  may  invade  various  organs  of  the 
body  and  produce  lesions  from  Avhich  the  bird  may  finally 
succumb. 

Railliet  observed  the  invasion  of  the  kidneys  of  the  goose 
in  which  the  symptoms  were  those  of  progressive  emaciation, 
weak,  staggery  gait.  At  times  the  bird  may  roll  over  on  its 
back,  thus  assuming  a  dorsal  position.  There  is  a  loss  of  appe- 
tite,  gradual   emaciation,   unthrifty   appearance   and    finally 

death. 

At  autopsy  the  kidneys  showed  small  whitish  nodules,  vary- 
ing in  size  up  to  a  piiihead.  At  times  the  lesions  are  found 
rather  diffused.  A  microscopic  examination  of  the  nodules 
show  them  to  be  filled  with  masses  of  the  encysted  coccidia. 


Fig.  55.  Pulmonary  Coccidiosis  in  a  Duck. 

A,  nodules   in   lung   caused  by   the   cocci- 
dium   (natuial   size). 

Fig.  55.    Intestinal  Coccidiosis  in  a  Duck. 

B,  ulcers  caused  by  the  coccidium  (natural 
size). 


128  POULTRY  DISEASES 

BLASTOMYCOSIS  OF  THE  GOOSE 

This  condition  has  been  observed  by  Martin.  At  autopsy 
there  were  found  small  cysts  attached  to  the  capsule  of  the 
liver.  Tlie  cysts  varied  in  size  up  to  a  pea.  They  are  seldom 
if  ever  found  in  the  liver  substance.  The  cysts  are  yellowish- 
white  in  color,  fluctuate  and  resemble  somewhat  the  small 
echinococcic  cysts.  Upon  microscopic  examination  yeast-like 
bodies  were  found  which  somewhat  resembled  the  Oidium 
albicans.  Some  may  be  found  in  the  process  of  budding.  The 
liquid  of  the  cyst  is  of  a  yellowish  color  and  of  a  gelatinous 
consistency.  The  cells  are  provided  with  a  capsule  and  con- 
tain a  homogeneous  protoplasm  in  the  center  of  which  is  ob- 
served a  nucleus. 

SARCOCYSTIS 

Sarcocystis  is  also  called  psorospermosis.  It  is  dut  to  a  sin- 
gle-celled sporozoal  parasite.  It  may  affect  the  striped  and 
unstriped  muscular  tissue,  connective  tissue  and  at  times  the 
visceral  structures. 

Kuhn  has  described  a  sarcocyst  as  affecting  the  domestic 

fowl. 

CLOACITIS 

Symptoms. — The  anus  becomes  red  (inflamed),  protrudes, 
and  later  ulcerates.  In  a  case  treated  in  the  laboratory  anti- 
septics were  applied  and  injected  into  the  cloaca  with  the 
view  of  destroying  the  germs  causing  the  trouble,  but  the  bird 
died.  Upon  autopsy  it  was  found  that  acute  inflammation 
had  extended  the  entire  length  of  the  rectum.  See  Fig.  2  for 
this  portion  of  the  anatomy.  The  latter  condition  would  be 
called  a  proctitis. 

Hoare  describes  a  contagious  catarrh  affecting  the  cloaca 
and  sometimes  extending  to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
lower  portion  of  the  oviduct  and  to  the  rectum.  It  may  be 
communicated  from  bird  to  bii'd  by  copulation. 

Treatment. — In  these  cases  apply  a  solution  of  sulphocar- 
bolates  compound,  five  per  cent  carbolized  vaselin,  or  a  solu- 
tion of  five  per  cent  carbolic  acid  in  warm  water.  The  solu- 
tions may  be  injected  with  a  syringe  and  the  ointment  applied 
with  the  finger. 

The  best  results  have  been  obtained  by  the  injections  of  a 
five  per  cent  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  three  times  a  day. 

PERITONITIS 

Acute  peritonitis  is  rare.  It  may  result  from  the  irritation 
that  follows  from  rupture  of  the  oviduct.  It  may  accompany 
aspergillosis  or  fowl  cholera. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT        129 

Symptoms. — Pain  on  palpation  of  the  abdomen,  and  pain- 
ful defecation.  There  may  be  a  loss  of  appetite,  dullness,  and 
later  marked  prostration  and  death. 

Chronic  peritonitis  is  more  common  than  the  acute  type. 

Post  Mortem  Appearance. — The  surface  of  the  peritoneum 
appears  rough  and  Hakes  of  purulent  material  are  found 
among-  the  intestines  and  other  abdominal  organs.  This  type 
is  a  purulent  peritonitis  and  is  the  one  most  common. 

ASCITES 

Ascites  has  been  observed  in  both  fowls  and  canaries. 

It  has  been  found  to  appear  in  certain  diseased  conditions 
of  the  liver,  kidney  or  heart.  It  may  also  appear  in  chronic 
nonsuppurative  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum. 

Symptoms. — Great  distension  of  the  abdomen.  Upon  shak- 
ing the  bird  the  liquid  may  be  heard  within.  Palpation  does 
not  reveal  the  abdominal  cavity  filled  with  hard  objects. 

Treatment. — Tap  the  abdominal  cavity  and  allow  the  liquid 
to  escape.  For  this  purpose  a  hollow  needle  (a  hypodermic 
needle  will  do)  is  used.  Give  two  grains  of  potassium  iodid 
in  capsule  by  the  mouth  twice  daily. 

NEPHRITIS 

Acute  nephritis  is  frequently  met  with  in  fowls.  Baby 
chicks  which  are  allowed  to  be  exposed  to  cold  rains  and  be- 
come chilled  or  which  are  not  properly  cared  for  and  improper 
heat  supplied,  suffer  with  acute  congestion  and  inflammation 
of  the  kidneys. 

Symptoms. — Acute  and  chronic  inflammation  interferes 
with  the  appetite,  arrests  growth  and  at  times  there  is  a  loss 
of  coordination. 

Post  Mortem  Examination. — The  kidneys  are  increased  in 
size;  the  tissue  is  rather  firm  in  consistency  in  the  chronic 
type.  The  organ  may,  in  chronic  cases,  be  of  a  greyish-yellow 
color.  There  is  hypertrophy  of  the  interstitial  connective  tis- 
sue. The  uriniferous  tubules  are  partly  destroyed  and  the 
epithelium  in  many  parts  may  be  in  a  state  of  fatty  degenera- 
tion. I 

Chronic  indurative  nephritis  is  noted  often. 

Acute  parenchymatous  nephritis  has  been  observed  in  hens 
dying  of  purulent  peritonitis  and  purulent  inflammation  of 
the  air  sacs. 


]30  POULTRY  DISEASES 

SUPPURATIVE   INFLAMMATION   OF  THE  GIZZARD 

A  Single  Comb  Rhode  Island  Red  cock  two  years  old,  used 
as  a  breeder,  showed  a  slight  diarrhea,  '^mopiness"  and  no 
interest  in  life.    He  became  gradually  weaker  and  died. 

The  carcass  Avas  thin  there  being  an  absence  of  retroperi- 
toneal fat.  There  was  a  suppurative  inflammation  of  the  pos- 
terior half  of  the  gizzard.  The  posterior  portion  of  the  giz- 
ard  cavity  contained  a  quantity  of  cheesy  pus.  The  liver 
weighed  60  grams  and  presented  a  greyish  mottled  appear- 
ance. The  testes  were  in  an  atrophic  condition  showing  that 
he  was  entirely  inactive  as  a  breeder. 

A  section  of  the  gizzard  including  a  portion  of  apparently 
normal  gizzard  tissue  and  through  the  involved  area  was  pre- 
pared and  sectioned  and  stained  with  hematoxylon,  eosin  and 
picric  acid.  A  portion  of  the  adjacent  muscle  was  densely 
infiltrated  with  polymorphonuclear  leukocytes  as  well  as  a 
zone  of  newly  formed  connective  tissue.  This  was  apparently 
a  chronic  suppurative  inflammation.  The  pus  r-onsisted  of 
fibrinous  material  and  masses  of  pus  cells. 

Sections  of  the  liver  prepared  and  stained  with  hematoxylon 
and  eosin  showed  intense  active  and  passive  congestion  with 
hemaciderosis.  There  was  an  acute  inflammation,  the  poly- 
morphonuclear leukocytes  appearing  more  densely  infiltrated 
in  the  perivascular  spaces  and  immediately  adjacent  tissue.  In 
some  areas  the  inflammation  appeared  rather  diffused  while 
in  other  parts  of  the  liver  there  appeared  a  tendency  toward 
focalized  areas  of  inflammation. 

CALCULI 

Urinar}^  sediment  in  the  form  of  calculi  has  been  found  in 
the  fowl.  These  deposits  may  be  located  in  the  small  collect- 
ing and  transporting  tubules  of  the  renal  tissue  and  may 
consist  principally  of  uric  acid.  These  deposits  appear  as 
small  nodules. 

PURULENT  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  ABDOMEN  OF  THE 

HEN 

Purulent  abdominal  inflammation  is  quite  common  in  hens. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  with  hens  of  two  or  more  years  of 
age.  Nonspecific  infections  are  the  cause  of  a  portion  of  these 
cases. 

The  following  case  serves  as  an  example  of  purulent  peri- 
tonitis of  the  hen. 

The  subject  was  a  two-year  old   S.  C.   Rhode  Island  Red  hen. 
After   death   the  unfeathered   region  of  the  head  was   of  a   deep 


DISEASES  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  TRACT         131 

purplish  red.  There  was  slimy  mucus  in  the  mouth.  The  general 
condition  of  the  plumage  was  fairly  good.  The  carcass  had  a  fair 
amount  of  fat  on  it.  The  liver  appeared  dark,  but  normal  in  size. 
The  gall-bladder  was  full  of  bile.  The  peritoneal  surfaces  were 
covered  by  a  mildew-like  material.  The  carcass  was  cold  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  had  been  in  refrigeration  over  night.  This  mildewed 
condition  may  have  been  due,  in  part,  to  this  cause.  The  spleen 
was  normal  in  size  and  appearance.  The  intestines  appeared  normal 
except  for  the  above  described  condition.  Ingesta  and  a  small 
amount  of  gas  were  contained  in  the  intestines.  The  ceca  and 
large  intestines  contained  a  small  amount  of  ingesta.  The  pancreas 
appeared  normal.  The  kidneys  were  of  a  light  mottled  grey,  the 
anterior  lobes  appearing  swollen  and  highly  congested — apparently 
blocked  with  the  pasty,  white  urinary  secretions.  There  was 
present  cloudy  swelling.  The  ureters  were  distended  with  urinary 
secretions  of  a  pasty  nature.  The  ovary  was  inactive  and  of  a 
pinkish  color.  The  accumulated  material  of  the  right  ureter  was 
thinner  and  more  slimy  than  the  left,  and  upon  a  microscopic  ex- 
amination, was  found  to  be  teeming  with  short,  chained,  strep- 
tococci; pus  cells  of  both  mononuclear  and  polymorphonuclear 
varieties  and  sodium  urate  crystals  were  present.  There  was  about 
5  cc.  of  a  thin,  milky  liquid  in  the  peritoneal  cavity.  The  strep- 
tococci seemed  to  be  confined  to  the  abdominal  region  affected  with 
purulent  inflammation.  Microscopic  examination  of  the  pleural 
fluid,  lungs,  blood  and  heart  blood  revealed  nothing  abnormal. 

A  microscopic  examination  of  sections  from  the  kidneys  stained 
with  hematoxylon  and  eosin  showed  both  active  and  passive  con- 
gestion, with  cloudy  swelling.  There  were  pus  cells  and  hemorrhage 
into  the  collecting  tubules.  Areas  here  and  there  showed  localized 
nephritis  as  evidenced  by  the  area  being  packed  with  polymor- 
phonuclear and  mononuclear  leukocytes,  similar  to  those  found  in 
the  peritoneal  exudates. 

INTESTINAL  DISEASES  OF  CANARIES 

Intestinal  troubles  in  canaries  are  usually  due  to  errors  in 
feeding  and  watering.  In  diarrhea  remove  all  green  feed  and 
do  not  give  any  soft  feed.  Give  just  the  normal  seed  supply. 
Feed  the  bird  with  a  small  piece  of  wet  bread  on  which  has 
been  sprinkled  subnitrate  of  bismuth.  If  the  case  does  not 
yiekl  to  this  treatment  place  in  the  drinking  cup  one  ounce 
of  clear  water  in  which  has  been  placed  four  drops  tincture 
of  opium  and  fifteen  drops  whisky  or  brandy. 

In  case  of  constipation  give  plenty  of  green  feed  such  as 
Jettuce,  apph\  chick  weed.  Add  a  pinch  of  Epsom  salts  to  the 
drinking  water.  IMake  the  water  so  that  it  has  a  faintly  saline 
taste  of  the  Epsom  salts. 


SECTION  VI 

BLOOD   DISEASES 

Under  blood  diseases  come  the  septicemias,  as  apoplectiform 
septicemia,  septicemia  of  geese,  typhoid  of  fowls,  and  spiro- 
chetosis, all  caused  by  germs  which  live  and  multiply  in  the 
blood  stream. 

APOPLECTIFORM     SEPTICEMIA      IN      CHICKENS      AND 

PIGEONS 

This  disease  is  due  to  the  Streptococcus  gallinarum,  which 
grows  in  long  or  short  chains.  It  can  be  readily  grown  upon 
artificial  media  and  does  not  liquefy  gelatin.  Experimental 
inoculations  with  this  organism  killed  the  following  animals: 
chickens,  mice,  rabbits  and  swine.  It  does  not  kill  guinea  pigs 
or  dogs.    The  germ  multiplies  in  the  blood. 

Symptoms. — Apoplectiform  septicemia  is  rapid  in  its  prog- 
ress. The  bird  shows  great  prostration,  feathers  ruffled,  loss 
of  appetite,  and  the  condition  rapidly  terminates  in  death. 
Often  birds  die  in  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  after  the 
first  symptoms  appear.  Birds  in  which  no  symptoms  of  the 
disease  had  been  noticed  may  be  found  dead  under  the  roosts. 
This  disease  often  causes  great  loss  to  pigeon  fanciers. 

Postmortem  Findings. — The  spleen  is  enlarged,  dark  and 
soft ;  focal  necrosis  is  noted  in  the  kidneys,  spleen  and  liver. 
Cloudy  swelling  also  occurs  preceding  this  state.  Pneumonia 
may  be  present.  The  germs  can  be  isolated  in  pure  culture 
from  any  of  the  organs  named. 

Treatment.— Observe  the  rules  of  sanitation,  as  directed 
for  chicken  cholera  (Page  110).  If  possible,  separate  the  well 
birds  from  the  sick.  Vaccination  with  a  vaccine  made  from 
the  Streptococcus  gallinarum  has  given  good  results.  Sulpho- 
earbolates  compound  may  be  tried,  as  outlined  in  the  article 
on  chicken  cholera  before  mentioned. 

SEPTICEMIA  OF  GEESE 

This  disease  has  been  described  as  being  caused  by  a  germ 
which  closely  resembles  the  polar  staining  germ  of  chicken 
cholera.    It  multiplies  in  the  blood. 

Symptoms. — Geese  are  often  found  dead  without  having 
been  noted  to  have  been  ill.  The  majority  die  very  quickly, 
that  is,  within  two  or  three  hours  after  the  first  symptoms 
appear.  Occasionally  a  bird  may  live  for  several  days  and 
finally  die. 


];U  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Postmortem  Findings. — Small  pinpoint  hemorrhages  may 
be  noted,  especially  in  the  mucous  lining  of  the  intestines. 
Usually  the  digestive  tract  contains  feed  in  all  stages  of  diges- 
tion, indicating  that  the  disease  is  very  rapid  in  its  onset. 
Considerable  mucus  may  be  found  in  the  mouth  and  throat. 
Inflammation  may  be  noted  in  the  liver,  pericardium  (heart 
sac),  spleen  and  kidneys. 

Treatment. — Sanitary  measures  the  same  as  those  given  for 
chicken  cholera.     (See  page  110.) 

FOWL  TYPHOID.    INFECTIOUS  LEUKEMIA 

This  is  due  to  a  short,  plump  germ  with  rounded  ends.  It 
is  called  the  Bacterium  sanguinarium,  and  is  easily  isolated 
from  birds  dead  of  the  disease.  It  reproduces  the  disease  in 
inoculated  birds,  multiplying  in  the  blood. 

The  disease  is  confined  to  chickens.  The  period  of  incuba- 
tion is  given  as  one  to  two  months.  The  course  of  the  disease 
is  from  one  to  two  weeks  to  as  long  as  three  months.  Birds 
rarely  recover. 

Symptoms. — Anemic  or  blanched  appearance  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  head,  with  a  dull  appearance  and  great  pros- 
tration, usually  ending  in  death  in  about  four  days,  is  charac- 
teristic of  this  disease.  In  some  cases  the  affected  bird  may 
live  three  to  four  Aveeks.  ]\Ioore  reports  a  decrease  in  red  blood 
cells  and  an  increase  in  white  blood  cells,  the  latter  princi- 
pally the  polymorplionulear  leukocytes. 

Postmortem  Finclings. — The  liver  is  enlarged  and  mottled 
with  greyish  patches,  due  to  areas  of  leukocytic  invasion.  The 
germ  can  be  isolated  from  the  internal  organs.  The  kidney 
shows  congestion,  which  may  be  recognized  by  the  minute  red 
lines.  The  intestines  may  be  congested.  The  spleen  usually 
appears  normal  in  size  and  color.  The  red  blood  cells  gradu- 
ally diminish  and  a  leukocytosis  (an  increase  of  the  white 
blood  cells)  appears. 

MYELOID    LEUKEMIA 

Schmeisser  has  shown  that  spontaneous  leukemia  occurs  in 
the  fowl.  It  is  transmissible  by  the  intravenous  or  intra-pei'i- 
toneal  injection  of  an  organic  emulsion. 

Tlie  chemical  picture  and  changes  produced  in  the  blood 
and  organs  are  analogous  to  those  which  occur  in  hunuin  leu- 
kemia. 

In  a  case  of  spontaneous  leukemia  the  following  differential  count 
was  found: 

Polymorphonuclear  with  eosinophilic  rods  8  per  cent 

Polymorphonuclear  with  eosinophilic  granules  0  per  cent 


BLOOD  DISEASES  135 

Lymphocytes  2  per  cent 

Large  monociilear  cells 30  per  cent 

Mast   cells  0  per  cent 

Mononuclear  myelocyte  with  eosinophilic  granules 52  per  cent 

Unclassified  cells 8  per  cent 

100  per  cent 

It  is  associated  by  an  iiifiltratioii  of  large  mononuclear  leu- 
kocytes. Atrophy  of  the  bone  marrow  is  noted.  There  is  noted 
an  accumulation  of  wliite  blood  cells  in  the  bone  marrow, 
spleen  and  liver.  The  bone  marrow  appears  greyish-red  in 
color. 

Treatment. — Prompt  isolation  of  the  well  from  the  sick 
l)irds  and  sanitary  measures  as  given  for  fowl  cholera  should 
be  observed. 

SLEEPING   SICKNESS    OF   CHICKENS 

This  disease  is  due  to  a  gram-positive  encapsulated  strep- 
tococcus. As  prominent  symptoms  there  is  noted  reddened 
and  swollen  conjunctiva.  The  bird  appears  "droopy"  and 
drowsy.  The  comb  and  wattles  appear  pale.  There  is  a  diar- 
rhea and  emaciation  rapidly  ensues. 

SEPTICEMIC  DISEASES   OF  CANARY  BIRDS 

Septicemia  of  Canary  Birds 

This  disease  is  due  to  a  motile  bacillus.  The  cultures  on 
potatoes  are  a  characteristic  yellowish-grey.  As  a  prominent 
symptom  there  is  noted  a  soot-like  discoloration  of  the  skin. 
At  autopsj^  there  is  noted  small  necrotic  foci  in  the  liver. 

Cholera  of  Canary  Birds 

This  disease  is  due  to  a  non-motile  bacillus.  It  does  not  take 
the  polar  staining.  In  cultures  it  produces  fetid  gases.  On 
potato  it  produces  yellowish  colonies.  It  is  very  fatal  run- 
ning a  rapid  course.  Chickens  and  pigeons  inoculated  with 
the  pure  culture  succumb  to  the  disease. 

Infectious  Necrosis  of  Canary  Birds 

The  bird  appears  droopy  with  loss  of  appetite.  Singing 
birds  cease  to  sing  and  remain  quiet  on  the  perch.  Upon 
examination  of  the  mouth  cavity  dii)htheric  areas  are  noted. 
On  autopsy  small  necrotic  areas  are  noted  in  the  liver  and 
spleen.    The  germ  is  a  short  non-motile  Gram-negative  bacillus. 

Typhoid  of  Canary  Birds 

This  disease  is  due  to  a  ])acillus  of  the  enteritidis  group. 
The  prominent  symptoms  are  those  of  debility,  difficult  respi- 


136  POULTRY  DISEASES 

ration  and  diarrhea.  The  course  is  rather  rapid.  On  autopsy 
there  is  noted  an  acute  gastro-intestinal  catarrh,  and  a  fibri- 
nous inflammation  of  the  serous  membranes  and  cloudy  swell- 
ing of  the  liver  and  kidneys. 

FOWL  PEST 
(Pestis  Avium) 

This  is  an  acute  contagious  and  infectious  disease  of  fowls. 
It  may  attack  chickens,  geese,  turkeys,  pheasants,  sparrows, 
parrots,  pigeons  and  owls.  The  infective  agent  is  contained  in 
the  blood,  nasal  discharges,   nervous  system  and  droppings. 

The  disease  may  be  transmitted  to  chickens  by  inoculation 
of  emulsions  from  these  sources  from  the  infected  fowd.  These 
emulsions  filtered  through  porcelain  and  the  filtrate  injected 
into  a  chicken  produced  the  disease.  Landsteiner  claims  that 
the  blood  corpuscles  are  more  virulent  than  when  serum  alone 

is  injected. 

The  virus  kept  in  sealed  glass  tubes  retains  its  virulency  for 
at  least  three  months.  The  filtrate  proved  virulent  for  only 
one  week.  Centanni  found  that  a  temperature  of  65  degrees 
Fahrenheit  killed  the  virus  at  once  and  55  degrees  Fahrenheit 
in  thirty  minutes.  The  virus  remained  active  in  dried  liver 
and  spinal  cord  for  200  days,  and  in  blood  mixed  with  gly- 
cerin 270  days.  Drying  in  a  thin  layer  kills  it  (Ostertag).  It 
is  destroyed  by  five  per  cent  creolin,  three  per  cent  chlorate 
of  lime  and  one  per  cent  corrosive  sublimate. 

The  disease  is  probably  spread  by  contaminations  from  the 
droppings  and  nasal  secretions.  The  feet  of  man  and  animals, 
utensils  and  clothing  coming  in  contact  Avith  the  contagion 
may  transmit  the  disease.  Birds  introduced  into  the  flock 
from  infected  flocks  or  placed  in  infected  runs  or  coops  may 
serve  as  a  source  of  infection.  Macerated  parasites  (blood 
sucking)  removed  from  sick  birds  and  these  injected  into  sus- 
ceptible birds  did  not  produce  the  disease. 

Symptoms. — The  period  of  incubation  is  from  three  to  five 
days.  The  bird  first  appears  depressed  with  loss  of  appetite; 
later  dull  and  sleepy.  The  comb  and  wattles  appear  dark  red 
and  the  bird  sits  with  droopy  wdngs,  and  gives  a  peculiar  loud 
cry  when  picked  up.  The  walk  is  irregular  and  staggery. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  disease  greyish  scales  sometimes  de- 
velop on  the  skin,  especially  on  the  face  and  around  the  eyes. 
The  nasal  discharge  is  of  a  reddish  or  greyish  color  and  rather 
viscid  in  consistency.  Similar  secretions  are  noted  in  the 
mouth  and  throat.  The  bird  if  distressed  by  obstruction  from 
mucus  accumulation  may  throw  its  head  causing  a  discharge 
of  a  quantity  of  the  secretion.    The  droppings  are  grey  or 


BLOOD  DISEASES 


337 


greenish  and  occasionally  diarrhea  accompanies  the  disease. 
The  disease  is  fatal  in  from  two  to  three  days  to  seven  days, 
depending  on  the  natural  resistance  of  the  bird  and  the  viru- 
lency  of  the  causative  organism. 

Autopsy. — In  very  acute  cases  lesions  may  be  absent  or  only 
lightly  marked.  There  may  be  hemorrhages  in  the  serous 
membranes  as  the  peritoneum,  pericardium  or  on  the  viscera, 
and  congestion  of  the  liver,  spleen  and  kidneys.  In  less  acute 
cases  there  may  be  edema  of  the  subcutaneous  connective  tis- 
sues of  the  neck  and  breast.  The  pericardium  may  contain  a 
quantit}^  of  pale  yellow,  slightly  cloudy  fluid.  Fibrinous  exu- 
date has  been  noted  in  the  pericardium  and  peritoneum. 
There  is  a  catarrhal  swelling  of  the  conjunctival  mucous  mem- 
branes. The  mouth  and  nasal  passage  contain  a  ciuantity  of 
mucus.  The  lungs  may  be  congested.  The  intestines  may  be 
congested  or  there  may  be  inflammation.  Hemorrhages  may 
be  noted. 

Treatment. — Steps  should  be  taken  as  in  other  contagious 
and  infectious  diseases.  Maggiora  claims  that  hyperimmu- 
nized  goose  blood  has  curative  properties  as  well  as  capability 
of  producing  passive  immunity. 

THROMBOSIS 

A  bird  was  sent  to  the  laboratory  with  the  history  that  it 
had  been  sick  for  several  weeks.  There  was  a  partial  loss  of 
appetite,  finally  complete 
loss ;  the  bird  showed  weak- 
ness and  a  gradual  emacia- 
tion. The  hen  died  in 
about  two  weeks  after  com- 
ing to  the  laboratory. 

On  autopsy  there  was 
noted  great  emaciation. 
All  organs  appeared  nor- 
mal except  the  circulatory 
system.  There  was  throm- 
bosis (complete  plugging) 
of  the  right  brachial  artery 
(artery  to  right  wing)  and 
the  same  of  the  large  ves- 
sel to  the  liver,  as  well  as 
of  the  iliac  and  femoral 
artery  of  the  left  side(  ar- 
tery to  left  leg).  Upon  mi-  Fig.  57.  Thrombos:s  in  a  Hen. 
CrOSCOpic     e  X  a  m  i  n  a  t  ion             a,  pelvic  bone,  central  portion;  B,  muscle 

there    were    found    white      ^^^^c,  hiood  v.ssei  cont.in.ns  a  ^ta. 


^8r '^^^HH»    ^K'A^ 

■  r 

^ 

/ 

B' 

L38 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


thrombi.     Fig  57  illustrates  this  condition.     It  may  he  seen 
that  the  blood  vessels  are  quite  distended  by  the  blood  fibrin. 

SPIROCHETOSIS 

This  is  a  blood  disease    (septicemia)    due  to  a  spiral-like 
microscopic  organism  that  is  supposed  to  be  carried  irom  Inrd 

to  bird  by  means  of  the  chicken 
tick;  illustrated  in  Fig.  34. 
Fig.  58  shows  a  drawing  of  the 
germ.  It  is  the  Spirocheta 
gallinarum ;  the  slide  from 
which  this  drawing  was  made 
was  kindly  sent  to  the  author 
by  Dr.  Balfour  of  Khartoum, 
Sudan,  Africa.  It  may  affect 
the  chicken,  goose,  lark  and 
other  birds. 

This  disease  was  first  recog- 
nized in  Brazil;  it  is  found  in 
Africa  and  Europe.  A  disease 
occurs  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  United  States,  whero  the  chicken  tick  is  abundant,  that 
presents  symptoms  similar  to  those  of  spirochetosis;  so  far 
as  the  author  knows,  no  definite  work  has  been  done  to  deter- 
mine the  true  cause  of  it. 


^^^^e^ 


Fig.    58.      Spirocheta    Gallinarum. 

This  drawing,  made  from  a  blood 
smear,  shows  red  blood  cells  (oval), 
thrombocytes  and  leukocytes  (round) 
and    spirochetes    (corkscrew-like). 


Fig.   59.  Acute   Spirochetosis   (after  Balfour). 

! 

Spirochetosis   is   most    common    among   chickens,    l)ut    also 
infects  geese,  ducks,  pigeons  and  sparrows. 

Symptoms. — Dullness,  loss  of  appetite  and  rapid  emaciation 


BLOOD  DISEASES  139 

first ;  the  head  and  tail  are  down,  and  the  bird  stands  around 
in  corners  or  on  the  roost,  Avith  its  eyes  closed.  Fig.  59  shows 
a  photograph  of  a  typical  case.  Note  the  attitude  of  head, 
tail  and  body. 

Another  form  of  septicemia  in  chickens  is  caused  by  a  com- 
ma-shaped germ — the  Si)irilhim  Metcliinikovi  or  Vibrio  Met- 
chinikovi. 

The  symptoms  are  similar  to  those  of  fowl  cholera,  except 
that  there  is  no,  or  at  most  but  slight,  elevation  of  the  tem- 
perature. Diarrhea  is  constantly  present.  Inflammation  of 
the  bowel  and  enlarged  liver  (hepatitis)  is  noted.  The  disease 
has  not  been  reported  in  this  country.  It  may  exist  unrecog- 
nized. 

PERICARDITIS 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  pericardium  or  heart  sac ; 
there  is  usually  a  sero-fibrinous  effusion  about  the  heart,  and  it 
is  often  spoken  of  as  dropsy  of  the  heart  sac  or  dropsy  of 
the  heart.  It  is,  of  course,  not  strictly  a  blood  disease,  but 
it  is  often  associated  with  diseases  of  tha  blood  and  of  the 
lungs,  as  a  complication;  further  than  this  its  cause  is  not 
Imown,  but  may  result  from  exposure  to  cold  and  dampness. 
It  may  be  a  complication  of  fowl  cholera,  of  acute  tuberculous 
origin,  or  pneumo-pericarditis,  the  latter  an  extension  of 
the  inflammation  from  the  lung  structures  to  the  pericardium. 

Symptoms. — A  diagnosis  of  pericarditis  cannot  ordinarily 
be  made  during  the  life  of  the  bird,  but  is  easily  demonstrated 
on  autopsy.  Among  the  symptoms  are  intense  dyspnea,  the 
beak  being  held  open.  Tumultuous  heart  action,  extreme  ex- 
haustion on  exercise  may  exist.  The  bird  may  fall  if  forced  to 
move  and  death  may  occur  from  syncope.  There  may  be  a 
degeneration  of  the  heart  muscle  and  possibly  a  rupture  of 
the  pericardium. 

Treatment. — Treatment  is  unsatisfactory;  numerous  cases 
occurring  in  the  same  flock  should  lead  to  the  enforcement  of 
better  hygienic  conditions,  especially  to  better  ])rotectioii  from 
cold  and  dampness. 

ENDOCARDITIS 

This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  heart, 
usually  affecting  the  valves  also.  Nothing  is  known  of  its 
cause,  but  it  is  of  not  infrequent  occurrence  during  the  course 
of  certain  diseases  of  the  blood.  It  cannot  be  diagnosed  dur- 
ing life,  and  therefore  cannot  be  treated.  From  what  we 
know  of  the  cause  of  endocarditis  in  man  and  animals,  we 
should  expect  exposure  to  cold  and  dampness  to  be  a  factor  in 


140  POULTRY  DISEASES 

the  cause  of  this  disease,  and  as  such  to  be  avoided.  Verrucose 
pericarditis  has  been  found.  The  nodules  form  in  a  line  or  in 
an  irregular  manner  in  the  vicinity  of  the  valves.  These  nod- 
ules may  become  so  large  that  they  interfere  with  the  action 
of  the  valves  and  a  regurgitation  of  the  blood  results. 

Chronic  endocarditis  is  often  found.  In  old  birds  calcifi- 
cation of  the  aortic  walls  has  been  observed. 

RUPTURE  OF  THE  HEART  AND  LARGE  BLOOD  VESSELS 

Internal  hemorrhage  (bleeding)  due  to  rupture  of  the  heart 
or  large  blood  vessels  is  common  in  overfed  fowls.  It  may 
be  caused  by  any  excitement  or  overexertion  in  such  birds. 
It  is  described  in  this  section  because  affecting  organs  of  cir- 
culation. 

Symptoms. — There  is  a  sudden  blanching  of  the  comb  and 
mucous  membranes  followed  by  great  weakness,  coma  and 
death.     No  treatment  is  practicable. 

HYPERTROPHY  OF  THE  HEART 

The  causes  of  this  condition  have  been  thought  to  be  ol)- 
struction  of  the  circulation  due  to  tuberculous  growths  in  the 
liv-er  or  mesentery  and  also  a  sequela  of  gout  and  rheumatic 
conditions.    It  is  found  in  both  fowls  and  cage  birds. 

Symptoms. — The  most  prominent  symptom  is  that  of  dysp- 
nea accompanied  by  a  wheezing  sound. 


SECTION  VII 

CONSTITUTIONAL   DISEASES 

Under  this  head  we  class  ' '  going  light ' '  and  tuberculosis. 

Both  cause  considerable  loss  to  the  poultryman.  There  is 
much  doubt  as  to  whether  the  former  should  be  classed  as  a 
disease;  certainly  this  term  as  usually  applied  refers  merely 
to  a  symptom  of  a  disease  (often  tuberculosis  or  enteritis)  or 
a  condition  in  Avhicli  there  is  a  progressive  loss  in  the  weight 
of  the  bird. 

GOING   LIGHT    (ASTHENIA) 

Those  who  look  upon  going  light  as  a  specific  disease  con- 
sider it  as  one  that  affects  chickens  and  pigeons.  It  may  affect 
old  or  young  birds.  It  is  called  going  light  because  the  bird 
becomes  gradually  lighter  until  emaciated.  It  is  a  disease  that 
is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  A  germ  called  the 
Bacterium  asthene  has  been  isolated  bv  one  investigator  from 
the  intestines  of  sick  birds.  It  resembles  the  Bacillus  coli 
comnmnis  always  present  in  the  intestinal  tract  of  chickens. 

The  affected  birds  have  a  good  appetite ;  in  fact,  at  times  a 
ravenous  one.  The  loss  of  flesh  is  continuous  for  a  few  weeks, 
when  the  bird  dies. 

In  eleven  cases  of  going  light  examined  by  the  pathological 
laboratory  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
three  were  found  to  be  infected  by  the  Bacillus  enteritidis. 
This  germ  is  dangerous  to  man.  It  affects  cattle  and  has  re- 
sulted fatally  to  those  persons  eating  infected  meat. 

Postmorteyn  FincUngs. — Usually  on  autopsy  all  organs  ap- 
pear normal  so  far  as  gross  appearance  goes,  but  extreme 
emaciation  as  described  above  is  noted. 

The  following  is  the  result  of  a  blood  study  in  these  cases: 

Report  of  Cases  of  Asthenia 

Two  outbreaks  have  been  investigated  by  the  author.  One  in  a 
flock  of  Rhode  Island  Reds,  in  which  flock  there  were  about  two 
hundred  birds  which  should  have  weighed  about  two  pounds  each. 
The  disease  affected  a  gradually  increasing  number.  The  feed  con- 
sisted of  grain,  insects  picked  up  from  the  fields,  and  plenty  of 
green  grass.  As  it  was  irrigation  time,  the  birds  had  access  to 
the  irrigating  ditches.  The  henhouse  and  yard  were  kept  clean. 
It  was  advised  to  change  the  run  and  continue  giving  a  variety 
of  good  green  feed  and  grain  with  a  good  supply  of  water.  The 
disease  finally  disappeared  from  the  flock.    All  efforts  at  the  labora- 


]42  POULTRY  DISEASES 

tory  to  isolate  any  germ  which  might  have  been  the  cause  of  the 
disease  were  unsuccessful. 

The  second  flock  was  from  eggs  that  had  been  produced  by  birds 
in  which  roup  had  appeared  the  preceding  winter.  Five  birds 
about  four  months  old  were  sent  to  the  laboratory  for  study  with 
the  following  history:  The  birds  had  good  hygienic  surroundings, 
were  moved  from  place  to  place,  given  fresh  water  and  good  quality 
of  feed,  with  plenty  of  green  stuff,  but  without  success;  the  birds 
not  only  did  not  thrive,  but  continued  to  lose  flesh  and  finally  died, 
notwithstanding  that  most  of  them  had  a  ravenous  appetite. 

Chick  No.  3. — Hemoglobin.  65  per  cent:  erythrocytes,  2,920,000; 
leukocytes,  28,000.  Differential  count:  polymorphonuclear  neutro- 
philes,' 39  per  cent;  eosinophiles,  30  per  cent;  lymphocytes,  29  per 
cent;  mast  cells,  2  per  cent. 

Chick  No.  4. — Hemoglobin,  65  per  cent:  erythrocytes,  2,600.000; 
leukocytes,  14,000.  Differential  count:  eosinophiles,  31  per  cent; 
mononuclears,  8  per  cent;  lymphocytes,  60  per  cent;  basophiles,  1 
per  cent. 

Chick  No.  5. — Hemoglobin,  75  per  cent;  leukocytes,  34,000;  eryth- 
rocytes, 3,000,000.  Differential  count:  polymorphonuclear  neutro- 
philes,  4  per  cent;  eosinophiles.  50  per  cent;  basophiles,  3  per  cent; 
mononuclears,  4  per  cent;   lymphocytes,  39  per  cent. 

Chick  No.  6. — This  bird  was  about  four  months  old,  stunted  in 
growth,  "going  light,"  and  had  contracted  roup  from  another  bird 
The  blood  study  shows  the  following:  hemoglobin,  60  per  cent; 
leukocytes,  16,000;  erythrocytes,  3,600,000:  thrombocytes,  436.000. 
Differential  count:  eosinophiles,  3  per  cent;  mononuclears,  4  per 
cent:  lymphocytes,  89  per  cent;  mast  cells,  4  per  cent. 

All  efforts  to  isolate  germs  from  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys  and 
heart-blood  were  unsuccessful. 

More  study  must  be  done  on  this  disease  to  determine  the  true 
cause,  before  rational  treatment  can  be  outlined. 

Treatment. — Best  results,  in  flocks  of  young  birds,  have  been 
obtained  by  giving  one  tablespoonful  of  Epsom  salts  to  each 
12  birds.  Dissolve  the  Epsom  salts  in  water  and  use  this 
water  to  mix  with  bran  or  mash.  Repeat  twice  weekly.  See 
that  the  flock  has  plenty  of  shade  and  clean,  pure  water  at  all 
times. 

The  birds  should  receive  one-fourth  to  one  grain  ferrous 
sulphate  once  a  dav  in  soft  feed.  The  prognosis  is  not  lio{)e- 
ful. 

With  our  present  knowledge  we  will  look  to  sanitary  sur- 
roundings for  the  control  of  this  condition — clean  coops  and 
yards,  good  feed  and  water.  A  tablespoonful  of  ]io\vdered 
ginger  to  each  dozen  hens  may  be  given  with  advantage  once 
or  twice  a  day  in  soft  feed. 

In  going  light  in  addition  to  a  cathartic  of  Epsom  salt  the 
following  given  once  daily  has  yielded  fair  results:  calcium 
carbonate  120  grains,  magnesium  sulphate  240  grains,  sodium 
bicar])onate  360  grains,  sodium  chlorid  60  grains,  sodium  sul- 
pliate  120  grains.     This  is  one  dose  for  120  birds. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES  143 

TUBERCULOSIS 

This  is  a  disease  of  great  importance  to  the  poultrynian,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  destructiveness  to  his  flock,  but  also 
on  account  of  its  relation  to  the  health  of  himself  and  family ; 
for  wliile  fowls  are  not  very  likely  to  contract  tuberculosis 
from  domestic  animals  or  from  man,  yet  fowls  that  have  the 
disease  are  a  serious  menace  to  the  other  animals  on  the  farm 
as  well  as  to  the  poultryman  and  his  family. 

Cause. — The  Bacillus  tuberculosis,  which  was  discovered  by 
Koch  in  1882,  is  the  cause  of  this  disease.  There  are  four  prin- 
cipal types  of  this  organism.  The  one  most  commonly  in- 
fecting man  is  designated  as  the  human  type.  The  one  pe- 
culiar to  cattle  is  designated  as  the  bovine  type ;  and  the  one 
peculiar  to  fowls  the  avian  type ;  and  there  is  still  another  type 
of  the  tubercle  bacillus  which  affects  fish  and  other  cold-blood- 
ed animals. 

While  there  are  some  differences  in  the  shape  of  the  organ- 
isms grow^n  for  a  considerable  time  in  the  various  animals  and 
some  differences  (biochemically)  when  grown  in  artificial 
media  after  isolation,  yet  the  type  peculiar  to  any  of  the 
warm-blooded  animals  will  grow  in  any  of  the  other  warm- 
blooded animals,  that  is,  the  types  are  interchangeable,  which 
means  that  the  bovine  type  may  cause  tuberculosis  in  man  and 
the  human  type  may  cause  tuberculosis  in  birds,  etc.  Most 
authors  consider  that  while  the  chicken  has  considerable  re- 
sistance to  the  human  type,  it  will  and  does  become  infected 
by  this  type. 

It  has  been  found  that  a  large  percentage  of  hogs  fed  swill 
from  houses  where  tuberculous  persons  have  expectorated  into 
it.  become  tuberculous,  and  when  slaughtered,  there  is  a  con- 
siderable loss  from  condemnation  of  those  badly  affected. 
(Busman.) 

Tuberculosis  among  chickens  is  rare  in  some  portions,  and 
is  very  common  in  other  localitie.s  in  the  United  States.  Al- 
though it  is  widespread  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  it  was  first  reported  in  this  country  in  1900  and 
received  but  slight  attention  until  1908.  It  also  occurs  in  tur- 
keys, pigeons  and  pheasants,  and  two  cases  in  wild  geese  were 
reported  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College.  The  loss  from 
this  disease  seems  to  be  increasing. 

VanEs  and  Schalk  have  produced  tuberculosis  experiment- 
ally in  twelve  sparrows  by  feeding  them  chopped  tuberculous 
liver  of  a  hen. 

Mode  of  Hpread. — In  the  progi-ess  of  tuberculosis  of  chick- 
ens at  times  there  is  noted  a  diarrhea.  In  these  cases  there 
are  tuberculous  ulcers  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  intestinal 


144  POULTRY  DISEASES 

tract  and  the  spread  is  very  rapid  through  the  flock,  as  birds 
are  continually  picking  feed  from  the  ground  and  floors  where 
contamination  is  sure  to  have  taken  place. 

If  scraps  be  fed  to  which  tuberculous  sputum  has  found 
its  way  or  if  the  birds  are  allowed  to  devour  parts  of  an  ani- 
mal dead  of  the  disease,  there  is  a  liability  of  their  contracting 
tuberculosis. 

They  may  also  contract  the  disease  by  the  introduction  of 
a  tuberculous  bird  into  a  flock.  Tuberculosis  among  wild  birds 
has  been  mentioned  as  a  possible  fact.  There  is  also  danger 
of  spread  from  eggs  from  a  tuberculous  hen  where  the  eggs 
are  purchased  for  hatching — prenatal  infection. 

There  is  also  a  possibility  that  birds,  by  following  tuber- 
culous cattle,  may  become  infected,  as  do  hogs.  It  has  been 
argued  that  the  temperature  of  the  bird  is  so  high  (105°  F. 
to  107°  F.)  that  it  furnishes  an  unfavorable  field  for  the 
human  and  bovine  types  of  germs,  which  thrive  at  tempera- 
tures close  to  98°  and  101°  F.,  respectively.  It  has,  however, 
been  found  that  these  germs  soon  adjust  themselves  to  such 
changes  in  temperature  and  to  a  certain  degree  to  differences 
in  food. 

One  case,  a  hen,  was  sent  to  the  laboratory  with  the  history  of 
having  had  access  to  the  sputum  of  a  person  afflicted  with  tubercu- 
losis. Upon  autopsy  small  pearl-like  nodules  were  found  through- 
out the  liver,  in  the  lung  substance  and  over  the  serous  lining 
covering  the  intestines  and  abdominal  cavity.  A  microscopic  ex- 
amination of  the  lesions  revealed  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis.  It 
more  closely  resembled  the  human  than  the  avian  type. 

Symptoms. — An  absolute  diagnosis  cannot  be  made  during 
life  from  the  physical  signs.  The  symptoms  observable  are 
common  to  many  conditions,  especially  in  the  early  stages 
when  there  are  no  positive  external  symptoms  by  which  it 
may  be  recognized.  The  bird  becomes  emaciated.  The  ra 
pidity  of  emaciation,  like  in  other  animals,  depends  on  the 
progress  of  the  disease ;  that  is,  the  susceptibility  of  the  bird, 
as  well  as  the  degree  of  infection. 

The  comb  appears  pale,  the  bird  becomes  dull  and  sleepy. 
If  the  joints  become  affected  there  will  be  lameness,  in  case 
the  affection  is  in  the  legs,  and  swollen  joints,  and  often  in 
affection  of  the  skin  and  visi])le  mucous  membrane  there  is 
ulceration  (sores).  This  latter  condition  has  been  observed 
especially  in  parrots.  These  skin  lesions  are  made  up  of  a 
cheesy  material  (caseation  necrosis),  which  is  covered  by  a 
thick,  rather  hard  crust,  whitish  in  color.  At  times  these 
crusts  become  rather  horny  in  nature. 

The  red  blood  cells  in  a  tu])erculous  fowl  may  be  greatly 
reduced  (as  low  as  1,000,000),  and  the  hemoglobin  as  low  as 


CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEAS.ES  145 

thirty-five  per  cent.     The  white  blood  cells  are  slightly  in- 
creased in  numbers. 

Diagnosis. — Many  investigators  claim  that  l)irds  will  not 
react  to  subcutaneous  injections  of  tuberculin  or  to  tuberculin 
dropped  into  the  eye  of  a  tuberculous  bird.  VanEs  and 
Schalk  have  shown  that  tuberculin  (50  per  cent)  made  from 
the  avian  type  tubercle  bacilli,  injected  rather  superficially 
in  the  comb  or  wattles  (intradermal  method)  wdll  produce 
a  swelling  as  in  similar  tests  in  mammals.  Only  about  one 
drop  is  injected.  In  a  test  of  600  birds  it  was  found  that  the 
intradermal  test  was  accurate  in  97.77  per  cent. 

Post  Mortem  Findings. — Owing  to  the  fact  that  most  birds 
are  infected  with  tul^ereulosis  through  contaminated  food, 
we  find  most  of  the  lesions  in  the  abdominal  organs.  Of 
these  the  liver  is  the  most  often  diseased.  Next  in  frequency 
may  be  named  the  spleen,  peritoneum  or  lining  of  the  ab- 
dominal cavity,  ovaries,  gizzard,  intestines,  lungs,  kidneys  and 
bones. 

As  indicated  above,  the  areas  may  appear  as  pearly,  grey- 
ish-white nodules  varying  in  size  from  a  pm-head  to  a  pea, 
or  even  larger.  In  these  larger  nodules  there  wdll  be  noted 
a  cheesy  mass  which,  as  the  lesions  become  older,  becomes 
impregnated  wdth  calcium  (lime)  and  then  cuts  like  gritty 
material.  Lime  deposits  in  tuberculous  lesions  of  birds  are  not 
so  abundant  as  in  tuberculosis  of  mammalia.  In  healed 
tubercles  there  may  be  a  solid  calcareous  (stony)  mass. 
Usually  the  diseased  organs  are  enlarged. 

Upon  opening  the  intestines  of  a  tuberculous  bird  there 
may  be  noted  ulcers,  usually  small  in  size,  and  a  thickening 
of  the  wall.  The  abdominal  lymph  glands  are  tuberculous. 
At  times  these  show  small  tubercles  from  the  size  of  a  pin- 
head  to  larger,  at  other  times  a  cheesy  mass  (caseation  ne- 
crosis), and  in  still  older  areas  an  infiltration  with  lime  salts. 
Small  tubercles  may  also  be  found  in  the  lungs  and  other 
adjacent  tissue. 

Like  in  the  higher  animals,  the  bones  become  tuberculous, 
there  is  noted  swelling,  tubercles  and  caseation ;  later  calcifi- 
cation. '    ! 

Treatment. — Treatment  of  the  affected  bird  is  not  to  be 
thought  of.  As  shown  above,  the  germs  of  the  disease  are 
so  often  spread  througli  the  droppings  that  the  only  sure 
means  of  eradicating  tlie  disease  from  a  flock  is  to  kill  all  the 
birds  in  the  flock  and  if  Tjossible  move  the  henhouse  to  a  new 
location  and  have  new  runs.  If  this  is  not  practicable,  thor- 
oughly disinfect  with  five  per  cent  carbolic  acid  or  five  per 


]4(J  POULTRY  DISEASES 

eent  ereulio,  all  fences,  feed  troughs,  watering  tanks  and 
l)uildings,  as  indicated  under  cholera. 

Tlie  tubercle  bacillus  is  resistant  to  external  influence.  A 
contaminated  poultry  yard  may  remain  infected  for  a  long 
time,  many  months  and  possibly  years.  The  action  of  disin- 
fectants on  the  tubercle  bacillus  is  slow.  Direct  sunliglit  on 
the  surface  of  infected  material  kills  the  bacillus  in  a  few 
hours. 

Birds  from  an  infected  flock  should  not  be  sold  for  ])reed- 
ing  purposes,  and  the  birds  from  such  a  flock  that  are  killed 
for  foocl  should  be  inspected  by  a  competent  veterinarian,  so 
that  none  may  be  used  for  food  purposes  that  are  diseased 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  the  food  unfit  for  use. 

All  birds  in  a  flock  infected  with  tuberculosis  that  die 
should  be  cremated  to  prevent  further  spread  of  the  disease 
from  that  source.  All  drop])ings  and  cleanings  from  the  hen- 
house and  runs  should  be  disinfected  with  calcium  chlorid,  a 
five  per  cent  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  other  reliable  disin- 
fectant before  spreading  on  the  fields. 

Inoculations  of  Birds  by  Mammalian  Strams 

Aiiclair  has  found  that  pigeons  injected  intraperitoneally  with 
pure  cultures  of  human  tubercle  bacilli,  died  after  one  to  three 
and  one-half  months,  without  showing  any  signs  of  tuberculosis. 
In  a  second  series,  pigeons  were  infected  in  a  similar  manner  with 
tubercle  bacilli  from  a  similar  source.  At  the  sixth,  seventh  and 
fourteenth  days  afterward,  the  pigeons  were  killed  and  the  livers, 
lungs  and  blood  injected  into  guinea  pigs.  A  few  of  the  pigs  died 
without  any  evidence  of  tuberculosis.  Only  two  died  of  local  tuber- 
culosis. 

From  this  Auclair  concludes:  first,  th:it  pigeons  infected  with 
human  tubercle  bacilli  die  without  any  observable  tuberculous 
changes;  second,  that  tubercle  bar-illi  may  retain  their  vitality  and 
virulence  in  the  body  of  the  pigeon,  for  at  least  fourteen  days: 
third,  that  the  tubercle  bacilli  localize  themselves  in  the  pigeon 
by  preference  in  the  liver  and  in  the  lungs,  but  not.  so  far  as 
could  be  shown,  in  the  blood;  and  fourth,  that  the  tubercle  bacilli 
passed  through  the  pigeon  give  rise  to  a  slowly  developing  tuber- 
culosis. 

Van  Es  and  Schalk  after  experimenting  with  many  chickens 
corne  to  the  following  conclusions: 

A  considerable  number  of  birds  into  which  mammalian  tubercle 
bacilli  are  introduced,  either  by  ingestion  or  by  inoculation,  die  in 
an  extremely  emaciated  state. 

As  a  result  of  the  incorporation  of  such  bacilli  into  the  bodies 
of  birds,  the  latter  may  retain  the  organisms  for  long  periods  with 
their  pathogenic  characteristics  fully  preserved. 

In  consequence  it  is  well  within  the  range  of  possibility  that 
biros  may  serve  as  intermediary  carriers  and  transmitters  of  mam- 
malian tuberculosis. 


CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES  147 

PSEUDO-TUBERCULOSIS 

The  symptoms  arc  similar  to  tliose  of  true  tuberculosis. 

Upon  autops}^  the  lungs  may  be  noted  to  be  thoroughly 
studded  with  nodules  varying  in  size  up  to  that  of  a  pea. 
The  nodules  are  firm  to  the  touch  and  when  sectioned  are 
found  to  be  dense  and  appear  homogeneous. 

The  lesions  may  be  mistaken  for  tul)erculosis,  parasitic  cysts, 
nodular  taeniasis,  aspergillosis  or  coceidiosis. 

ACTINOMYCOSIS 

Furlan  reports,  that  in  four  geese  three  months  of  age 
there  was  found  a  filiriiious  exudate  over  the  pericardium  and 
peritoneum.  ^Microscopic  examination  of  scrapings  from  these 
lesions  showed  colonies  resembling  those  of  actinomycosis. 

DISEASE   OF  THE  SUBCUTEM 

There  is  found,  at  times,  peculiar  disc-shaped  yellowish  or 
yellowish-grey  bodies  in  the  loose  connective  tissue  that  at- 
taches the  skin  to  the  underlying  structures.  These  bodies 
are  only  one  or  two  millimeters  in  diameter  and  upon  being 
sectioned  and  studied  under  the  microscope  show  by  their 
microchemical  action  that  they  contain  calcium  salts.  This 
condition  is  found  in  birds  of  any  breed  and  in  any  condi- 
tion, but  is  most  common  in  birds  rather  thin  in  flesh.  There 
is  no  evidence  of  it  being  an  acute  reaction  of  the  tissues  and 
is  apparently  of  no  constitutional  significance.  All  efforts  to 
isolate  an  organism  or  to  reproduce  the  condition  have  l)een. 
negative.  There  is  a  possibilit}^  that  it  may  be  a  calcification 
of  a  parasitic  invasion. 


SECTION  VIII 

DISEASES  OF  THE  LIVER 

Inflammation  and  necrosis  of  the  liver  as  seen  in  many  of 
the  infectious  diseases  have  already  been  referred  to  under 
the  discussions  of  these  different  diseases,  as  chicken  cholera, 
lilackhead,  tuberculosis,  etc.  Aside  from  diseases  of  the  liver 
due  to  infection,  the  commonest  cause  of  ailments  of  this  :)r- 
ccan  is  improper  feeding.  It  is  with  great  difficulty  that  dis- 
eases of  the  liver  can  be  recognized  except  upon  postmortem 
examination.     Treatment,  as  a  rule,  is  useless. 

FATTY  DEGENERATION 

There  is  a  disease  process  in  the  protoplasm  of  the  liver 
cells,  by  which  the  normal  secreting  cells  of  the  liver  are  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent  replaced  by  fat  cells.  The  liver  is 
smaller  than  normal,  unless  fatty  infiltration  is  also  present; 
it  appears  slightly  yellowish,  and  when  cut  through  with  a 
knife,  the  blade  of  the  instrument  will  have  a  greasy  appear- 
ance,  due  to  the  fat  that  adheres  to  it. 

Sijmpfoms. — Birds  affected  with  fatty  degeneration  of  the 
liver  show  varied  symptoms,  but  ordinarily  they  are  dull,  eat 
little  and  the  comb  turns  dark  to  black.  They  gradually  be- 
come thin  in  flesh  and  finally  die.  Usually  the  bird  will  live 
from  two  or  three  weeks  to  three  months  after  the  symptoms 
first  appear.  On  autopsy  all  organs  as  a  rule  appear  normal 
except  the  liver. 

Treatment. — There  is  very  little  that  can  be  done  for  this 
condition.  Podophyllin  in  one-grain  doses  every  three  days 
may  be  given  with  some  hope  of  relief. 

FATTY  INFILTRATION 

This  condition  may  be  a  physiological  or  normal  process 
until  the  accumulation  of  fat  occurs  in  such  quantities  as  to 
interfere  with  the  function  of  the  liver  cells. 

The  liver  is  one  of  the  so-called  storehouses  of  the  body  for 
fat.  In  it  is  stored  a  surplus  until  needed  by  the  body  for 
use  (for  combustion  for  the  production  of  heat  and  energy) 

Overfed  hens,  or  those  closely  housed  and  not  forced  to 
work,  or  fed  too  heavily  on  carbohydrates  (starchy  feeds) 
store  up  much  of  the  surplus  nutrition  in  the  liver  as  well 


150  POULTRY  DISEASES 

as  in  other  portions  of  the  abdomen,  especially  in  the  mesen- 
tery and  in  the  abdominal  walls. 

In  these  cases,  on  autopsy,  the  liver  will  be  found  to  be 
enlarged,  brownish  or  greyish-brown  in  color  (mottled),  fri- 
able (tears  easily),  and  when  cut  through  appears  "greasy," 
nnich  fat  adhering  to  the  knife  blade.  In  these  cases  rupture 
of  the  liver  often  occurs  when  the  hen  is  stepped  upon  hy  a 
large  animal,  is  thrown  or  jumps  a  long  distance  on  hard 
ground  or  a  concrete  floor.  Heavy  hens  with  clipped  wmgs 
are  prone  to  this  injury. 

In  the  liver,  in  which  excessive  fat  is  stored  up,  there  is, 
after  a  while,  an  encroachment  upon  the  protoplasm  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  cells  cannot  properly  functionate  and 
then  death  of  the  bird  may  occur.  In  these  cases  a  micro- 
scopic examination  shows  the  nuclei  of  the  cells  to  be  pushed 
to  one  side,  and  the  protoplasm  atrophied  and  disappearing. 
This  is  a  pathological  condition. 

RUPTURE  OF  THE  LIVER 

In  cases  where  the  liver  is  excessively  congested  with  liiood 
or  is  overly  filled  with  fat,  as  mentioned  above,  violence  may 
result  in  rupture. 

One  case  that  may  be  of  interest  came  to  the  laboratory,  and  at 
autopsy  was  found  to  be  ruptured,  with  considerable  blood  (hemor- 
rhage) in  the  abdominal  cavity  (among  the  intestines).  The  rup- 
ture or  tear  was  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long  and  on  the 
left  lobe.  The  organ  was  double  its  normal  size.  Upon  microscopic 
examination  it  was  found  to  be  congested  and  occasional  small  rup- 
tures   (hemorrhages)   were  found  throughout  the  liver  substance. 

This  bird  was  in  a  yard  with  a  horse  and  it  is  supposed  to  have 
been  kicked  or  stepped  upon,  as  the  left  side  was  bruised. 

CONGESTION  OF  THE  LIVER 

There  are  two  kinds  of  congestion  of  the  liver,  active  and 
passive.  Active  congestion  precedes  infiannnation  and  is  a 
state  in  which  the  capillaries,  arterioles  and  arteries  are  en- 
gorged with  blood.     It  is  caused  by  local  irritation. 

Pa.ssive  congestion  of  the  liver  is  usually  due  to  a  weak 
heart  or  a  leaky  valve  between  the  two  cavities  of  the  right 
side.  The  blood  backs  up  into  the  liver,  and  the  central 
veins  of  the  lobules  and  capillaries,  between  the  columns  of 
liver  cells,  become  engorged.  It  gives  the  cut  surface  a  ])ecu- 
liar  yellowish  mottled  api)ea ranee  called  ''nutmeg  liver," 
from  a  fancied  resemblance  that  it  bears  to  the  sectional  sur- 
face of  a  nutmeg. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  LIVER  151 

INFLAMMATION   OF  THE   LIVER 

Inflammation  of  the  liver  may  be  the  result  of  absorption 
of  poisonous  products  from  the  intestines.  These  ])r()(lucts 
(toxins)  lodg:e  in  the  liver,  or  the  inflammation  may  be  due 
to  infection  (germs)  as  in  chicken  cholera.  The  irritation 
causes  active  congestion  followed  by  a  migration  of  great 
inimbers  of  polymorphonuclear  leukocytes  (white  lilood  cells) 
and  thrombocytes,  constituting  inflammation.  The  liver  is 
enlarged,  dark,  and  easily  torn ;  it  appears  very  full  of  blood. 

In  many,  and  in  fact  most,  of  the  contagious  diseases  in- 
flannnation  of  the  liver   (hepatitis)  occurs. 

The  following"  case  report  will  serve  to  illustrate  these  cases: 

A  valuable  rooster  was  sent  to  the  small  animal  ward  of  the 
division  of  veterinary  medicine  of  the  Colorado  Agricultural  College 
for  treatment.  The  bird  had  been  sprinkled  with  some  proprietary 
lice  killer  and  had  immediately  taken  ill.  There  was  a  loss  of 
appetite  and  it  had  become  weak  in  the  legs  and  remained  so  till 
its  death.  Late  in  the  course  of  the  trouble  the  bird  was  not  able 
to  stand  at  all,  but  lay  on  its  side.  It  became  emaciated  and  lived 
only  about  three  weeks  after  it  was  taken  sick. 

On  autopsy  the  liver  was  found  to  be  enormously  enlarged,  weigh- 
ing 176  grams  (normal  weight  would  have  been  about  forty  grams 
for  a  bird  of  that  size).  The  surface  had  a  grayish  mottled  appear- 
ance. Upon  microscopic  examination  these  pale  gray,  irregular 
areas  proved  to  be  liver  areas  packed  with  leukocytes  (white  blood 
cells)  and  thrombocytes — an  aggravated  case  of  hepatitis  (inflam- 
mation of  the  liver). 

Another  similar  case  was  brought  to  the  laboratory,  except  that 
it  did  not  have  the  history  of  having  been  sprinkled  with  an  insect 
powder. 

INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  BILE  DUCTS 

Angiocholitis  and  cholec^^stitis  are  occasionally  met  with  in 
the  livers  of  birds.  A  post  mortem  examination  of  the  gall 
bladder  shows  its  contents  to  be  rather  mucilaginous  and  con- 
taining only  a  small  amount  of  the  biliary  elements. 

ENTEROHEPATITIS 

This  is  a  disease  of  turkeys  and  to  a  le.ss  extent  of  other 
birds,  which  extends  from  the  intestine  and  involves  the  liver. 
It  is  discussed  under  diseases  of  the  digestive  tract.  (See 
page  IIL) 

UNIMPORTANT  DISEASES 

Abscesses  and  tumors  of  the  liver  appear  to  be  very  rare 
in  chickens  and  other  fowl.  Sarcomas  and  carcinomas  (can- 
cers) of  this  organ  are  usually  associated  with  similar  tumors 
of  the  ovary. 


152  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Jaundice  is  very  rare,  and  appears  to  result  from  a  long- 
continued  mild  congestion  of  the  liver. 

Cercomoniasis  (spotted  liver)  is  a  type  of  disease  of  the 
liver  due  to  infection  {Monocercomonas  gallinarum)  that  may 
be  associated  with  severe  diarrheas. 

Aspergillosis  is  a  disease  due  to  a  fungus  (Aspergillus 
fumigatus,  and  sometimes  other  species).  It  commonly  af- 
fects the  lungs  (pneumomycosis,  which  see),  but  may,  and 
occasionally  does,  affect  the  liver. 

Amyloid  degeneration  of  the  liver,  spleen  and  kidneys  has 
been  noted  in  birds  afflicted  with  tuberculosis.  In  some  cases 
the  liver  appears  granular  and  brittle.  Amyloid  deposits  in 
these  organs  have  also  been  observed  in  this  laboratory  in 
hens  dying  of  purulent  peritonitis. 


SECTION  IX 

DISEASES  OF  THE  OVARY  AND  OVIDUCT 

PROLAPSE  OR  EVERSION  OF  THE  OVIDUCT 

This  is  a  common  ailment  of  laying  hens.  Stimulating 
feeding  and  aggravated  constipation  have  been  found  asso- 
ciated with  this  condition.  When  the  eggs  are  large  and 
considerable  straining  takes  place  during  their  passage,  and 
in  inflammation  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the  oviduct  or  egg 
canal,  prolapse  or  a  protruding  of  the  mucous  membrane 
through  the  cloaca  may  be  observed.  In  constipation,  the  bow- 
els becoming  gorged,  and  this  in  addition  to  the  obstruction 
when  the  egg  canal  contains  one  or  more  developing  eggs,  aud 
the  ovary,  being  active,  is  larger  and  adds  to  the  bulk,  pre- 
disposes to  prolapse. 

This  condition  is  most  often  seen  in  hens  that  are  hea\y 
layers.  It  perhaps  occurs  most  often  in  old  hens.  If  the 
prolapsed  or  protruding  mucous  membrane  is  allowed  to  ex- 
tend through  the  anus,  it  soon  becomes  inflamed  from  ex- 
posure to  the  air  and  infection.  Later  the  parts  may  become 
ulcerated  as  a  result  of  mechanical  injuries  or  the  attack  of 
germs. 

Treatment. — Wash  off  the  accumulated  material  on  the  vent 
feathers  with  clean,  soapy,  warm  water.  After  cleansing  the 
hands,  replace  the  protruding  mass,  using  on  the  fingers  car- 
bolized  vaselin,  three  to  five  per  cent  strength.  Keep  the 
hens  on  a  light  diet  for  several  days  so  that  the  parts  may 
have  a  rest  and  the  irritation  causing  the  trouble  subside.  It 
is  best  to  give  only  soft  feed  and  liqujds.  Give  the  hen  a 
tablespoonful  of  olive  oil  and  plenty  of  clean  water. 

OBSTRUCTION  OF  THE   OVIDUCT   (Egg  Bound) 

This  is  a  common  ailment  of  laying  hens,  perhaps  the 
commonest  of  all  discussed  conditions  of  the  oviduct.  The 
poultry  raiser  calls  it  ''("^g  bound,"  by  which  he  means  there 
is  something  in  the  oviduct  which  the  bird  cannot  force  out. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  oviduct,  or  that  part  which  re- 
ceives the  ovum  (yolk)  as  soon  as  it  is  fully  formed  in  the 
ovary  and  delivered,  is  lined  with  secreting  cells.  In  this 
part'the  albumin  which  surrounds  tlie  yolk  is  formed.  Further 
along  the  glands  secrete  the  shell  or  calcium  layer  after  form- 


L54  POULTRY  DISEASES 

ing  around  the  mass  a  fibrous  membrane  or  sac.  It  can  be 
readily  seen,  for  all  tins  to  be  brought  about,  there  must  be 
an  abundant  blood  supply.  An  inflammation  of  the  egg  duct 
(usually  the  result  of  infection  from  the  digestive  tract  by 
way  of  the  cloaca)  means  an  arrest  of  function  of  these  glands. 
There  are  other  cells  that  secrete  mucus  which  lubricates  the 
passage  way,  and  these,  too,  are  arrested  in  their  function. 
The  result  is  a  stoppage  of  the  egg. 

Other  causes  are:  eggs  of  too  large  size,  exhaustion  of  the 
bird  and  atony  and  paralysis  of  muscular  walls  of  the  oviduct 
and  vagina,  volvulus  or  twisting  and  stricture  of  the  oviduct. 
Weakened  muscles,  the  result  of  disease,  improper  nourish- 
ment and  overwork  are  contributing  factors. 

Symptoms. — The  hen  goes  frequently  to  the  nest  and  re- 
peatedly makes  expulsive  efforts  but  cannot  lay.  If  the 
o])struction  is  well  along  in  the  egg  canal  the  egg  may  be 
felt  as  a  hard  object  in  the  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen.  In 
many  cases  the  obstruction  is  so  far  up  the  oviduct  it  cannot 
be  felt  or  seen  and  we  must  depend  for  diagnosis  upon  the 
action  of  the  bird,  which  suffers  acutely  under  these  conditions. 

Treatment. —  First  be  sure  that  the  bird  will  not  lay  the 
egg  unaided.  Allow  her  to  remain  quiet  and  alone  for  a 
couple  of  hours ;  she  will  often  relieve  herself  unaided  If 
it  is  evident  that  the  bird  must  be  given  help,  wash  the  hand 
carefully  with  soap  and  water  and  lubricate  the  fingers  with 
three  to  five  per  cent  carbolized  vaselin,  which  can  be  se- 
cured at  any  drug  store,  pass  the  fingers  through  the  anus 
and  cloaca  into  the  egg  canal  and  remove  the  egg.  At  times 
the  egg  is  large  and  it  may  be  necessary  to  break  the  shell 
in  order  to  remove  it.  If  the  egg  is  broken,  make  sure  that 
all  parts  of  the  shell  are  removed.  By  referring  to  Fig.  2 
the  relations  of  these  organs  may  be  seen. 

After  the  removal  of  the  egg  give  the  hen  a  tablespoon  of 
olive  or  castor  oil  and  place  on  a  light  feed  for  a  few  days. 
Recovery  usually  occurs  in  the  simple  uncomplicated  cases 
which  form  the  majority ;  in  complicated  cases  death  is  often 
the  result. 

RUPTURE    OF    THE    OVIDUCT 

This  is  usually  a  complication  of  obstruction  of  the  oviduct. 
It  is  frequently  fatal  in  a  very  short  time  and  in  such  cases 
can  be  diagnosed  only  upon  postmortem  examination. 

Cause. — Vigorous  contraction  of  the  muscular  walls  of  the 
e^g  canal  in  expulsion  efforts  sometimes  results  in  a  rupture  of 
the  wall.  When  this  occurs  the  usual  sequel  is  peritonitis 
(inflammation  of  the  serous  lining  of  the  abdominal  cavity) 


DISEASES  OF  THE  OVARY  AND  OVIDUCT     155 

and  the  death  of  the  hird.  Disease  ])roeesses  sometimes  so 
weaken  the  wall  that  it  gives  way  under  the  stress  of  natural 
contraction. 

Sijmpto})is. — The  hen  ceases  to  lay,  the  al)d(mien  becomes 
larger  and  often  one  or  more  eggs  can  be  felt  by  palpating 
the  lower  portion  of  the  abdomen.  Often  the  hen  is  noted  to 
sit  up  penguin-like-fashion,  walking  with  tail  and  posterior 
portion  of  the  abdomen  dragging  the  ground.  There  is 
nothing  to  do  except  to  kill  the  bird.  At  autopsy  there  will 
be  found  many  yolks  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  possibly  one 
or  more  with  shells  and  possibly  an  infiammatinn  of  the  lining 
of  the  cavity  (peritoneum). 

BROKEN  EGGS  IN  OVIDUCT 

Eggs  in  the  oviduct,  as  well  as  ova  still  undelivered,  are 
often  found  broken  as  a  result  of  a  kick  of  a  large  animal  or 
of  the  hen  being  stepped  upon.  Death  usually  follows,  if  not 
immediately  from  the  injury,  which  breaks  the  egg,  after  sev- 
eral days  as  a  result  of  complicated  obstruction  of  the  oviduct 
resulting  from  the  fibrous  exudate  thrown  out  about  the  br.'iken 
yolk. 

We  have  also  studied  cases  of  ruptured  ova  due  to  heavy 
hens  roosting  on  high  roosts  and  by  jumping  upon  the  hard 
floor,  causing  rupture  of  the  larger  forming  yolks  or  ova  or 
of  eggs  in  the  egg  canal. 

PROLAPSE  OF  THE  CLOACA 

This  may  occur  in  heavy  laying  hens  that  roost  on  high 
perches  and  fly  a  long  distance  to  the  ground,  and  especially 
when  the  wings  are  clipped.  If  these  birds  are  allowed  low 
roosts  and  put  on  a  limited  diet  they  recover.  Some  of  these 
conditions  have  been  studied  in  the  author's  laboratory  and 
the  trouble  overcome  by  observing  this  rule. 

ABNORMAL  EGGS 

Manv  different  kinds  of  abnormal  eg-2,s  are  produced  by  fowls 
owing  to  various  diseased  or  other  abnormal  conditions  of  the 
generative  apparatus.  Because  of  the  rarity  of  their  occurrence  such 
eggs  are  of  little  importance  to  the  practical  poultry  raiser,  but 
thev  possess   much   interest  for  the  scientific  investigator. 

Soft-shpll  Eoffs. — This  is  a  condition  where  eggs  are  laid  without 
a  sufficient  amount  of  shell  substance  covering  the  shell  membrane. 
The  commonest  cause  is  overfeeding,  another  cause  is  the  lack  of 
sufPcient  shell-making  material  in  the  feed:  still  another  cause  is 
frieht.  which  may  cause  a  premature  detachment  of  the  yolk. 

The  cause  should  be  remedied  and  the  condition  will  disappear 
without  further  treatment. 

Yolkless  Eggs.— These  are  small  eggs,  in  which  the  albumen  and 


156  POULTRY  DISEASES 

shell  are  formed  about  a  small  portion  of  detached  yolk,  a  minute 
piece  of  hardened  albumen  or  a  bit  of  coagulated  blood  instead  of 
the  normal  yolk. 

Double  and  Triple  Yolk  Eggs.— These  eggs  with  two  yolks  are 
common.  They  are  caused  by  two  yolks  getting  into  the  oviduct  and 
being  enclosed  together  in  the  albumen  and  shell.  Three-yolked  eggs, 
which  are  rare,  have  a  similar  origin. 

Bloodspecks,  Blood  Rings.  Egg  Inclusions. — These  have  little  sig- 
nificance; particles  of  coagulated  blood,  due  to  hemorrhage  when  the 
ovum  (yolk)  is  discharged  from  the  ovary,  are  most  common,  but 
lumps  of  bacteria,  worms,  fecal  matter,  etc.,  have  been  found. 

Blood  clots  may  be  found  in  either  the  yolk  or  white   (albumen). 

If  hemorrhage  occurs  in  the  yolk,  the  clot  has  formed  in  the 
ovary  before  it  was  delivered  into  the  oviduct.  If  the  clot  is  in 
the  white  it  has  occurred  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  oviduct. 

Dwarf   Eggs 

Dwarf  eggs  of  fowls  vary  greatly  in  size  and  shape.  There  are 
two  distinct  types;  first,  the  prolate  spheroidal  shape,  similar  to 
a  normal  egg;    and  second,  the  cylindrical  type. 

The  internal  structure  of  the  dwarf  egg  varies  in  its  makeup. 
Some  dwarf  eggs  contain  a  small  yolk  surrounded  by  a  membrane, 
others  a  small  quantity  of  yolk  without  a  yolk  membrane,  and 
still  others  no  yolk.  When  yolks  are  present  usually  there  is  no 
germinal  disc. 

The  albumen  in  the  dwarf  eggs  differs  in  its  density.  It  may  be 
dense  and  appearing  like  that  of  a  normal  egg.  There  is  also  found 
all  gradations  between  these  two  extremes.  The  tendency  is  to  a 
density  greater  than  normal. 

The  size  of  the  egg  is  apparently  related  to  the  size  of  the 
nucleus  which  by  its  presence  gives  stimulus  to  albumen  secretion. 

A  bird  may  suffer  a  disturbance  in  her  physiological  functions 
of  reproduction,  and  produce  dwarf  eggs  since  normal  eggs  are 
produced  both  before  and  after  dwarf  egg  formation  and  the  cause 
of  such  dwarf  egg  production  is  of  a  temporary  character.  Dwarf 
egg  production  appears  in  both  pullets  and  old  hens  and  occurrs 
at  a  rate  of  five  to  eight  per  10.000  eggs  produced.  It  may  occur 
at  any  time  during  the  laying  period,  but  most  often  in  the  spring 
or  early  summer. 

The  yolk  of  an  egg  constitutes,  on  an  average,  24.37  per  cent  of 
the  weight  of  the  egg,  and  33.91  per  cent  of  double-yolked  eggs  and 
35.52  per  cent  of  triple-yolked  eggs. 

The  shape  of  the  eggs  is  determined  by  the  action  of  the  circular 
and  longitudinal  muscular  fibers  of  the  oviduct  wall. 

The  egg  being  a  semifiuid  body  has  a  tendency  when  free,  to 
assume  a  globular  shape,  but  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the 
membrane  it  is  larger  than  the  oviduct  lumen,  hence  there  is  a 
tendency  under  pressure  exerted  by  the  oviduct  wall  to  elongate 
the  mass  in  the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of  the  oviduct  as  this 
is  the  line  of  least  resistance. 

The  degree  of  pressure  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  egg  and 
the  tonicity  of  the  muscular  coats  of  the  oviduct. 

The  exact  length  as  compared  to  the  breadth  will  depend  upon 
the  tonus  of  the  circular  and  longitudinal  muscular  fibers.  A  strong 
tonus  of  the  circular  fibers  and  weak  longitudinal  fibers  may 
greatly  alter  the  normal  shape  of  the  egg.  The  two  sets  of  muscles 
are  independent  in  their  action. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  OVARY  AND  OVIDUCT     157 

EPIZOOTIC    ABORTION    IN    BIRDS 

Under  this  head,  there  have  been  mentioned  by  several  writers, 
an  affection  in  birds  in  which  the  eggs  were  expelled  from  the 
oviduct  before  the  formation  of  the  shell  had  taken  place.  We 
have  noted  this  in  flocks  when  crushed  oyster  shells  were  kept 
constantly  before  the  birds.  The  question  arises,  is  there  any  con- 
nection in  the  train  of  causes  in  the  bird  and  mammals? 

INFLAMMATION   OF  THE  OIL  GLAND 

In  the  fowl  there  are  no  oil  glands  nor  sweat  glands  found 
in  connection  with  the  feathers.  This  is  compensated  for  by 
an  oil  gland  located  in  the  posterior  dorsal  region  of  the 
abdomen  and  at  the  base  of  the  tail.  The  bird  obtains  the 
oil  with  its  beak  and  stripping  each  feather  separately  oils 
them. 

Inflammation  of  this  gland  has  been  noted.  The  region 
of  the  gland  becomes  swollen,  red,  and  painful  to  the  touch. 
^Microscopic  examination  shows  a  true  acute  inflammation. 
The  ducts  are  occluded  and  the  bird  suffers  considerable 
pain.     Hot  applications  are  indicated. 


SECTIO]Sr  X 

TUMORS 

Tumors  of  various  kinds  affect  l)irds,  l)ut  are  less  eoinmon 
tlian  in  higher  animal  life.  There  is  almost  no  literature  on 
the  subject.     The  following  reports  from  the  author's  labora- 


A 


X  ?...,/ 


Fig.  60.     Hematoma  of  Ovary  in  a  Hen  (natural  size). 
A,  diseased  ova;  B,  sectioned  surface  of  two  of  the  I)lood  tumors. 

tory  are  given  for  their  interest,  rather  than  their  utilitarian 

value. 

Occurrence  of  Tumors. — Some  definite  data  as  to  the  occurrence 
of  tumors  is  given  by  the  Maine  Experiment  station  in  the  Journal 
of  Ar/ricultural  Research. 


IGO  POrLTRY  DISEASES 

It  was  found  that  of  880  birds  autopsied  at  that  station  79.  or  8.96 
per  cent,  had  tumors;  that  is,  there  were  90  cases  of  tumors  per 
1,000  birds. 

There  was  no  significant  difference  in  frequency  of  occurrence  of 
tumors  between  birds  that  died  from  natural  causes  and  apparently 
normal  birds  that  were  killed. 

There  is  a  significant  correlation  between  age  and  the  occurrence 
of  tumors.  Only  7.37  per  cent  of  the  birds  under  two  and  one-half 
years  of  age  had  tumors,  while  neoplasms  were  present  in  19.17 
per  cent  of  those  that  were  over  that  age. 

In  birds  with  tumors  which  died  from  natural  causes,  the  tumors 
were  the  probable  cause  of  death  in  from  one-third  to  one-half  of 

the  cases. 

There  was  a  tendency  to  the  association  of  hypertrophied  liver, 
spleen  or  kidney  with  the  presence  of  tumors  in  other  organs. 

Death  often  resulted  from  internal  hemorrhage  from  the  tumors, 
the  underlying  tissue,  or  the  hypertrophied   liver  or  spleen. 

The  tumors  can  be  classified  into  cystic  and  tissue  tumors;  22.78 
per  cent  of  the  tumors  were  cystic  and  74.68  per  cent  were  of  solid 
tissue  structure.  There  were  two  cases  of  tissue  tumors  to  which 
cysts  were  attached. 

In  the  females  the  organs  most  frequently  affected  were  the  genital 
organs;  37.76  per  cent  of  all  tumors  being  in  the  ovary  and  18.36 
per  cent  in  the  oviduct  and  oviduct  ligament. 

In  most  cases  the  tumors  were  confined  to  one  organ.  In  fifteen 
cases,  however,  the  tumor  had  evidently  undergone  metastasis,  since 
tumors  of  similar  nature  occurred  in  from  two  to  four  organs. 

HEMATOMA,   BLOOD   TUMORS 

Occasionally  considerable  hemorrhage  takes  place  in  the 
ova  as  they  are  in  process  of  formation.  These  fail  to  find 
their  way  into  the  oviduct  and  become  hematomata,  or  blood 
tumors.  '  Fig.  60  illustrates  one  of  these  cases,  natural  size. 
The  sectioned  surfaces  of  two  of  the  tumors  is  shown. 

Exciting  causes,  like  those  that  cause  inflammation  and 
congestion,  are  present.  A  rupture  of  a  small,  congested 
vessel  causes  the  clot.  Ergot  in  small  quantities  should  be 
given  to  combat  the  condition. 

MULTIPLE  TUMORS  OF  THE  OVARY 

One  of  the  commonest  of  tumors  consists  of  yolks,  or  ova, 
which  have  formed,  but  failed  to  enter  the  oviduct.  Later 
these  masses  become  hard  and  irregular  in  shape,  yellowish 
in  color,  consisting  of  dried  (inspissated)  yolks  forming;  con- 
centric layers.  Ovarian  infection  by  the  Bacterium  pullorum 
is  a  common  cause  of  this  condition.  Fig.  61  illustrates  one 
of  these  cases,  natural  size. 

CYSTIC  OVARY 

Cystomata,  or  cysts,  are  found  at  times  in  the  ovaries.  These 
cysts  are  apparently  imperfectly  developed  ova  varying  in 


TUMORS 


161 


size,  and  contain  a  colorless  liquid.    They  are  attached  to  the 
ovarian  mass  by  pedicles. 


.i> 


A 


Fig.   61.    ^Ili.tiple  Tumors  of  Ovarv  of  a  IIen    (natural   size). 

A,    ova    that    have    undergone    degeneration.       Note    the    pedicle-like 
structure  joining  to  the  ovarian  mass. 


A   CASEOUS   ABDOMINAL   TUMOR 

A  single  comb  Rhode   Island  Red   hen,   two  years   old,  was  kept 
on  one  of  the  test  farms  for  breeding  purposes,  that  is,  as  a  part 


162 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


of  the  farm   flock.     She  was  apparently  in  good  health   so  far  as 
indicated  by  actions  and  general  appearance. 

Upon  palpation  of  the  abdominal  cavity  there  was  noted  a  tumor- 
like mass,  freely  moval)le  and  located  in  the  left  posterior  quadrant. 
The  mass  was  apparently  about  the  size  of  an  average  sized  hen 
egg.  A  diagnosis  of  tumor  was  made  and  it  was  decided  to  operate. 
The  bird  was  brought  from  the  pen  in  which  she  had  been  kept, 
receiving  the  usual  care.  After  an  anesthetic  (chloroform)  was  ad- 
ministered the  feathers  were  plucked  from  over  the  region  of  the 
tumor  and  the  seat  of  operation  was  sterilized  with  fifty  per  cent 
alcohol. 

An  incision  about   three  inches  long  was  made   over  the  region 

of  the  tumor.     After 
^'  making   the   incision 

through  the  skin  and 
controlling  the  cuti- 
cular  hemorrhage,  a 
mass  of  retroperito- 
neal fat  about  three- 
fifths  inch  thick  was 
encountered.  Incising 
this  fat  caused  very 
little  hemorrhage  and 
in  fact  lipectomy  was 
resorted  to  in  order 
to  remove  the  ob- 
structing mass.  A 
tumor  7  cm.  long  and 
5  cm.  in  diameter 
was  easily  dissected 
out  of  the  mass.  The 
tumor  apparently  had 
its  origin  from  the 
superior  ligament  of 
the  oviduct. 

The  tumor  w  a  s 
hardened  in  a  ten 
per  cent  solution  for- 
maldehyd  and  an  in- 
cision was  made  through  the  center  when  it  was  found  that  the 
tumor  was  cyst-like,  containing  a  semi-solid  or  putty-like,  finely 
granular,  yellow  material.  The  mass  was  surrounded  by  a  rather 
thick,  fibrous  capsule. 


Fig.  62.     A   Hex   With  an   Abdominal  Cyst. 

The  upright  attitude  is  a  diagnostic   symptom   of  an 
abdominal  tumor  or  ruptured  oviduct. 


AN  ABDOMINAL   CYST 

A  one-year  old  rose  comb  Rhode  Island  Red  hen.  This  bird  was 
from  the  same  flock  as  the  preceding  bird. 

The  hen  assumed  an  upright  position  as  shown  in  Fig.  62,  other- 
wise appeared  in  good  condition. 

Choloroform  anesthesia  was  administered.  The  feathers  were 
plucked  from  over  the  posterior  abdominal  region  and  the  skin 
sterilized  with  a  fifty  per  cent  solution  of  alcohol.  An  incision 
three  inches  in  length  was  made  through  the  skin  and  aponeurosis 
of  the  abdominal  muscles.  The  layer  of  retroperitoneal  fat  was 
very  thin.    A  cyst  about  four  inches  in  diameter  was  encountered. 


TUI\rORS  163 

The  cyst  wall  was  made  up  of  white,  fibrous  connective  tissue  The 
wall  was  thin.  The  cyst  contained  a  colorless  li(inid  which  escaped 
from  the  punctured  cyst  wall.  The  cyst  was  attached  by  means 
of  a  pedicle  to  the  roof  of  the  lumbo-pelvic  cavity  about  midway 
of  the  kidneys.  The  cyst  apparently  had  its  origin  from  the  su- 
perior ligament  of  the  oviduct.  The  oviduct  contained  in  its  pos- 
terior portion  a  fully  developed  egg  with  shell. 

CONTAGIOUS   EPITHELIOMA 

Cause.— Thin  is  a  specific  infectious  disease.  It  is  trans- 
mitted from  one  bird  to  another  in  the  infected  tiock.  It  is 
quite  widely  distributed,  being  reported  in  Europe  and  (^ther 


Fig.    63.    Photograph  of  the  Heads  of  Two  Chicks  Affected  With  Contagious 

Epithelioma. 

countries  and  has  been  observed  in  many  sections  of  tlie 
United  States. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  appears  first  as  a  catarrhal  in- 
flammation of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  head  folUnved 
by  the  development  of  epitheliomatous  enlargements  which 
may  involve  any  part  of  the  head,  especially  the  unfeathcred 
portions.  These  epithelial  growths  at  first  appear  small,  have 
a  smooth  surface  and  a  hyperemic  zone;  later  they  may  de- 
velop to  the  size  of  a  hazelnut  or  larger.  Necrosis  may  take 
place  in  various  portions  of  the  new  growth ;  the  sloughing 
may  leave  ulcerative  surfaces  Avhicli  may  cicatrize.  Tlie 
lesion  may  o])struct  the  sight  and  even  ohlitei-ate  tlie  eye. 
The  nasal  lesions  may  interfere  with  respiration  and  cause 
the  bird  to  hold  its  mouth  partly  open. 

A  microscopic  examination  shows  the  structure  to  be  that 
of  an  epithelioma.  The  cells  are  arranged  in  more  or  less 
irregular  rows  supported  by  a  network  of  connective  tissue 


1G4  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Avliich  is  arranged  in  Ininclles  between  the  nests.  The  cells 
are  of  the  epithelioma  type.  There  may  be  observed  necros- 
ing foci. 

Birds  having  contagious  epithelioma  always  die,  while  those 
with  chicken  pox  show  a  very  large  percentage  of  recoveries. 
The  two  diseases  are  easily  distinguishable. 

SARCOMA 

Sarcomata  are  a  type  of  malignant  tumors;  that  is,  they 
spread  in  much  the  same  manner  as  cancers  (carcinoma). 
They  are  fatal  in  time.  The  flesh  of  birds  affected  with  sar- 
coma should  not  be  eaten. 

A  case  of  sarcoma  was  studied  by  the  writer,  in  which  the 
tumors  involved  the  ovary,  intestines,  peritoneum  (lining  of 
the  abdominal  cavity)  and  the  liver.  These  tumors  vary  in 
size,  are  whitish-yellow,  and  soft  when  sectioned.  The  study 
under  the  microscope  showed  it  to  be  a  spindle  celled  sarcoma. 

Rous  has  reproduced  spindle  celled  sarcoma  by  transplant- 
ing portions  of  a  sarcoma  obtained  from  a  Brown  Leghorn 
hen,  into  the  breast  of  both  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Leg- 
horns. He  obtained  better  growths  from  the  inoculations 
into  the  Plvmouth  Rocks. 

The  filtrate  also  produced  sarcoma  but  the  tumors  did  not 
appear  until  several  months  had  elapsed  after  the  inoculation 
of  the  filtrate. 

Round-celled  sarcomata  are  often  found  in  the  fowl.     We 

have  succeeded  in  transplanting  a  round-celled  sarcoma  from 

a  Single  Comb  White  Leghorn  hen  into  a  Partridge  Plymouth 

Rock  Cockerel. 

TERATOMA 

An  interesting  case  of  teratoma  in  a  black  Wyandotte  cock  about 
twenty-one  months  old  is  described  by  I\Ir.  Sheathes  in  the  Journal 
of  Comparative  Pathology.    (Vol.  XXIV,  part  2). 

The  tumor  was  found  in  the  abdominal  cavity  and  involved  the 
mesentery.  The  left  testicle  was  absent.  The  growth  measured 
Hx4x6  inches  and  was  enclosed  by  a  thin,  fibrinous  membrane.  The 
tumor  mass  consisted  of  a  multitude  of  cysts  ranging  up  to  the 
size  of  a  pea,  islands  of  cartilage,  cavities  lined  with  stratified 
epithelium  and  minute  feathers.  The  conclusion  was  drawn  that 
this  tumor  probably  originated  from  the  left  testicle. 

ADENOMA 

An  adenoma  is  a  tumor  that  has  some  resem])lance  to  a 
normal  gland.  Tt  is  made  up  of  connective  tissue  and  asini, 
or  cavities,  lined  bv  columnar  or  cul)oidal  cells.  One  tumor 
of  this  type  affecting  the  spleen  of  a  hen  was  sent  to  the 
laboratory.    The  spleen  was  al)oiit  twice  normal  size. 


TUMORS  165 

EPITHELIOMA 

This  is  a  type  of  cancer.  A  case  was  broiij^ht  to  the  hibora- 
tory  with  the  liistory  tliat  it  had  a  "j>-rowth"  on  the  side  of 
the  head  for  several  months.  The  tumor  was  tiat  and  about 
one  inch  in  diameter.  A  microscopic  exaniiuation  rcvcah-d  it 
to  be  an  epithelioma. 

OSTEOMA 

Osteoma  is  a  term  applied  to  a  tumor  that  consists  of  case- 
ous tissue.  This  kind  of  tumor  usually  arises  from  the  bones 
of  the  skeleton  but  may  develop  in  parts  away  from  the  nor- 
mal bony  structure. 

Osteomata  usually  occur  singly  in  the  body,  that  is,  they 
are  localized.  If  the  new  bony  growth  arises  in  connection 
with  the  skeleton  it  may  be  designated  according  to  its  loca- 
tions and  relations. 

If  the  new  bony  growth  is  small  and  circumscribed  and 
attached  to  the  old  bone  it  is  called  an  osteophyte.  If  it  be 
larger  and  more  tumor-like  it  is  called  an  exostosis.  If  the 
newly  circumscribed  bony  growth  is  located  within  the  bone 
cavity  it  is  called  an  enostosis. 

New  bony  growths  not  attached  to  the  skeleton  may  be 
classified  as  follows :  those  which  have  their  seat  in  the  peri- 
osteum but  are  separated  from  the  bone  are  called  movable 
periosteal  exostoses;  those  lying  near  the  bone  are  called 
periosteal  osteomata;  those  located  some  distance  from  the 
bone,  in  muscle  and  tendon  and  disconnected,  osteomata ;  and 
those  situated  in  other  organs,  as  the  lungs,  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  trachea,  the  skin  or  abdominal  walls,  are  hetero- 
plastic. 

Osteomata  may  occur  either  single  or  multiple.  Frequently 
there  are  found  multiple,  circumscribed  bony  growths  in  great 
numbers  on  the  bones  of  the  extremities  and  trunk.  The 
favorite  seat  of  these  new  bony  growths  appears  to  be  on  the 
epiphyseal  ends  of  the  bones  and  the  point  of  insertion  of 
tendons,  or  both  may  be  involved  in  the  same  individual  and 
at  the  same  time.  Zeigler  says  it  is  probable  that  such  growths 
are  to  be  referred  to  as  inherited  predisposition  of  the  part 
affected  to  overgrowth,  or  to  a  disturbance  in  the  development 
of  the  skeleton.  The  bony  plates  and  spicules,  which  in  rare 
cases  develop  in  the  lungs  or  in  the  mucous  membrane  oV  the 
air  passages,  may  occur  in  large  numbers. 

The  development  of  the  bone  takes  place  partly  through 
the  formation  of  osteoblasts,  and  partly  through  metaplasia 
of  formed  tissues.     The  matrix  is  formed  chiefly  from  the 


166  POULTRY  DISEASES 

connective  tissue  of  the  periosteum,  as  well  as  that  of  the  tissue 
from  which  the  osteoma  arises;  and  also  from  that  of  the 
perichondrium  and  endosteum.  If  an  exostosis  develops^  in 
such  a  manner  that  cartilage  is  first  formed  from  the  prolifer- 
ating periosteum  or  bone  marrow,  and  from  that  cartilage, 
bone  is  later  developed,  it  is  called  a  cartilaginous  exostosis; 
when  the  exostosis  is  formed  directly  from  the  proliferating 
periosteum  without  an  intermediate  stage  of  cartilage,  it  is 
known  as  a  connective  tissue  exostosis. 

If  the  connective  tissue  in  a  bony  tumor  is  abundant,  and 
in  fact  a  predominating  substance,  it  is  called  an  osteofil)roma. 
This  form  of  tumor  appears  quite  commonly  among  bony 
tumors. 

An  abundant  production  of  bone  in  a  chondroma  leads  to 
the  formation  of  an  osteochondroma.  These  latter  are  usually 
found  in  the  long  bones. 

A  condition  in  which  the  muscles  become  bony  in  nature 
is  called  myositis  ossificans.  The  tendons  of  birds  and  es- 
pecially those  of  the  leg  often  become  ossified,  especially  in 
old  birds.  This  is  also  the  case  in  some  of  the  vertebral  liga- 
ments. 

One  case  of  generalized  osteoma  has  been  studied  in  a  fowl. 

HORNY   GROWTHS   ON   THE   CUTICULAR   SURFACE   OF 

FOWLS 

Horny  growths  are  reported  as  occurring  on  the  cuticalar 
surfaces  of  fowls,  by  Gadow.  Horny  growths  have  been  ob- 
served on  the  cuticular  surfaces  and  on  different  parts  of  the 
body  of  cattle  and  other  animals. 

A  case  which  Ave  have  observed  is  of  importance  on  account 

of  its  immense  size  as  compared  to  the  size  of  bird  upon  which 

it  was  found. 

Dr.  Leonard  of  Asheville  sent  to  this  laboratory  a  specimen  with 
the  case  history  that  it  was  excised  from  the  thigh  region  of  a 
two-year-old  hen.  No  further  history  could  be  obtained.  The  spec- 
imen measured  14  centimeters  long  and  7.5  centimeters  in  diameter 
at  the  base.  The  outer  structure  is  horn-like,  resembling  the  horny 
structure  of  the  spur  or  claw.  There  will  be  noted  that  here  and 
there  a  feather  has  developed.  The  inner  core  consists  of  con- 
nective tissue  and  some  adipose  tissue  and  is  soft  in  consistency. 

PAPILLOMA— WARTS 

True  papillomata  have  been  observed  in  the  fowl.  They 
occur  on  the  cuticular  surface  and  consist  of  a  connective 
tissue  core  covered  by  stratified  epithelia. 


SECTION  XI 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  PASSAGES 

In  the  fall,  winter  and  spring,  these  diseases  are  a  scourge 
to  the  poultry  raiser,  unless  strict  sanitation  is  observed. 

OBSTRUCTION   OF  THE  TRACHEA 

This  is  uncommon,  except  as  a  result  of  gape  worm  infes- 
tation. Fig.  64  illustrates  a  case  that  was  sent  to  the  lal)ora- 
tory  with  the  statement  that  it  had  ' '  gapes. ' '  This  ])ird  would 
extend  its  head  high  into  the  air,  gasping  for  breath  as  one 
whose  trachea  is  obstructed 
by  gapeworms ;  it  was  weak 
and  una])le  to  stand  square- 
ly upon  its  feet.  It  was 
destroyed  for  examination. 
A  piece  of  a  grain  of  corn 
was  found  in  the  trachea, 
surrounded  by  an  accumu- 
lation of  mucus  due  to  the 
irritation  its  presence  in 
the  trachea  had  caused. 
The  foreign  body  and  the 
accumulated  mucus  were 
obstructing  the  passage  of 
air  to  the  lungs ;  hence,  the 
asphyxiation.     In     so  m  e 

cases  a  whole  grain  of  corn  has  been   found  lodged  in   the 
trachea  of  an  adult  fowl. 

CATARRH,  COLDS 

Cause. — Sudden  changes  in  the  weather,  cold,  damp  weather 
roosting  in  drafts  and  chilling  by  getting  wet  in  cold  rains 
are  often  factors  in  the  production  of  catarrh  among  birds. 
Such  affections  are  more  or  less  contagious,  Imt  bad  sanitation 
plays  an  important  part  in  their  spread.  AVeak  stock  and 
poorly  nourished  birds  are  predisposed  to  tliis  contagion. 

Symptoms. — The  appetite  may  be  somewhat  diminished. 
The  bird  sneezes,  throws  its  head  and  may  expel  some  nuicus. 
The  discharge  at  first  is  watery  and  later  becomes  more  or 
less  thick  (muco-purulent).  The  eyes  may  show  more  or  less 
inflammation  (conjunctivitis)  and  the  eyelids  may  become 
adherent.    The  characteristic  offensive  order  of  roup  is  absent. 


Fig    64.     Obstruction  of  the  Trachea. 

Showing  depression  (drooping  wings,  in- 
ability to  stand,  etc.)  from  partial  aspliyxia- 
tion. 


168  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Treatment. — The  same  treatment  as  outlined  under  roup 
(see  page  179)  has  given  us  uniformly  good  results. 

The  following  report  of  one  of  the  experiments  l)y  ^Ir. 
Coulton,  under  the  direction  of  the  author,  illustrates  the 
course  and  treatment  of  colds  in  birds : 

With  the  advent  of  cold  weather,  early  last  fall,  a  large  number 
of  our  chickens  contracted  colds,  which  w^as  extremely  discouraging, 
to  say  the  least.  We  had  over  one  hundred  chickens,  besides  tur- 
keys, and  fully  twenty-five  per  cent  were  affected  at  one  time.  In 
addition  to  the  colds  which  affected  the  throat,  nostrils  and  eyes, 
many  were  affected  with  canker  in  the  mouth.  The  ordinary  reme- 
dies, kerosene,  roup  cures,  etc.,  were  all  used,  with  little  effect.  We 
finally  got  from  the  drug  store  (at  the  suggestion  of  Doctor  Kaupp) 
some  sulphocarbolates  compound  tablets  and  used  them,  but  the 
improvement  was  not  very  marked.  Later  tablets  furnished  by  the 
pathological  laboratory  of  the  Colorado  Agricultural  College  (sulpho- 
carbolates compound,  thirty  grains,  with  six  grains  bichlorid  of 
mercury  to  the  tablet)  were  tried.  This  was  not  only  placed  in 
the  drinking  water,  but  a  solution  was  used  in  a  syringe  to  wash 
out  the  nostrils  and  mouth.  This  treatment  was  marvelously  ef- 
fective. It  acted  like  a  charm.  The  catarrhal  condition  continued, 
however,  until  the  following  treatment  was  used  (also  at  the  sug- 
gestion  of  Doctor  Kaupp) : 

The  nostrils  were  w^ashed  out  with  a  twenty  per  cent  solution  of 
common  baking  soda;  then  with  peroxid  of  hydrogen,  and  finally 
with  the  following  preparation:  oil  of  eucalyptus,  twenty  drops; 
oil  of  thyme,  one  dram,  and  petrol  oil,  two  ounces.  A  warm  solution 
of  the  soda  was  always  used  and  the  other  materials  were  w'armed 
by  setting  the  bottles  in  hot  water.  This  treatment  was  also  applied 
to  the  eyes,  and  the  ulcers  in  the  mouth  were  swabbed  with  it.  The 
results  were  remarkable.  It  w^as  almost  impossible  to  make  a  record 
of  these  cases,  as  a  large  portion  of  the  fiock  were  affected.  Further- 
more, it  was  impossible  to  give  them  all  the  daily  treatment  pre- 
scribed. Sometimes  they  would  go  several  days  without  treatment. 
In  mild  cases,  however,  from  two  to  three  applications  effected  a 
cure. 

March  17th  we  found  a  young  cockerel  in  a  very  roupy  condition. 
He  had  been  hatched  late  in  the  fall  and  had  never  been  very 
vigorous.  His  eyes  w^ere  swollen  shut,  nostrils  discharging  badly, 
and,  withal  his  was  not  a  promising  case.  We  isolated  him  and 
gave  him  the  regulation  treatment,  as  described  above.  Notwith- 
standing that  it  stormed  severely  and  he  was  not  well  feathered, 
the  next  day  he  was  showing  a  decided  improvement,  and  after 
three  treatments,  covering  about  five  days,  all  evidence  of  the 
trouble  had  disappeared  and  today  he  is  apparently  in  better  con- 
dition than  at  any  time  during  the  winter. 

A  day  or  two  later  we  found  two  others  belonging  to  the  same 
brood  in  about  the  same  condition  and  after  one  treatment  there 
was  evidence  of  improvement,  but  after  a  few  days,  not  having 
been  able  to  give  them  careful  attention  or  regular  treatment,  they 
seemed  to  be  worse,  and  we  used  the  hatchet  treatment.  I  am  satis- 
fied, however,  from  our  experience,  both  with  chickens  and  the 
turkeys,  when  taken  in  time  and  treated  regularly,  it  is  seldom 
necessary  to  lose  one.  We  estimated  that  by  this  treatment  we 
saved  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  those  affected. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  PASSAGES  169 

ASTHMA 

Cause. — Asthma  in  fowls  and  canaries  may  be  due  to  as- 
pergillosis of  the  air  passage  or  it  may  be  due  to  other 
catarrhal  conditions  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  this  passage. 

Sjjmpfoms. — Wheezing  sounds  are  noted  and  in  expiration 
there  is  a  creaking,  whistling  sound. 

Treatment. — G-ood  sanitary  surroundings,  clean  coop,  no 
draft.     Treat  local  condition  of  which  this  is  a  symptom. 

ULCERATIVE  PHARYNGITIS 

Symptoms. — The  bird  may  remain  on  the  roost  mucli  of 
the  time;  there  is  an  unkempt  appearance  of  the  plumage; 
there  is  gradual  loss  in  flesh  when  the  appetite  is  interfr^red 
with,  and  the  bird  may  find  it  difficult  to  swallow.  In  eat- 
ing corn,  wheat  and  particularly  whole  unhulled  oats  the 
throat  is  irritated  and  swallowing  is  difficult,  the  bird  chok- 
ing down,  opening  its  mouth,  and  sometimes  protruding  its 
head  into  the  air.  A  coughing  sound  is  made  as  the  bird 
throws  its  head.  While  on  the  perch  or  standing  tucked  up 
around  the  yard,  the  bird  may  be  noted  to  occasionally  open 
its  mouth,  and  in  fact  sitting  or  standing  with  its  mouth  partly 
open  is  a  diagnostic  symptom. 

Appearance. — When  the  mouth  is  opened  and  the  pharynx 
observed  it  will  be  noted  to  be  covered,  to  a  more  or  less  de- 
gree, w^ith  yellowish  white  ulcers  varying  in  size  from  a  wheat 
grain  to  as  large  as  one's  thumbnail. 

Microscopic. — In  an  examination  of  the  sections  from  dis- 
eased areas  under  the  microscope  one  finds  an  ulceration  of 
a  diphtheric  nature. 

History. — This  condition  has  been  studied  in  many  flocks 
where  roup  has  not  appeared  for  years  and  where  there  were 
no  symptoms  of  any  of  the  three  types  of  roup.  It  is  not 
believed  to  be  caused  by  the  roup  microorganism,  but  an  en- 
tirely separate  disease. 

BRONCHITIS 

In  some  cases  we  have  noted  catarrh  commencing  in  the 
head,  principally  the  nasal  chambers,  extend  down  and  in- 
volve the  trachea  (wind-pipe),  and  even  to  the  bronchi 
(branches  of  the  trachea  leading  to  the  lung  tissues).  Sud- 
den changes  in  the  weather,  dampness  and  roosting  near  a 
crack  in  the  henhouse  so  that  a  cold  wind  ])lows  upon  them, 
or,  in  fact,  in  any  draft,  are  the  principal  causes  of  bron- 
chitis. 

Symptoms. — A  rattling  sound  may  be  heard  in  the  region 


170  POULTRY  DISEASES 

of  the  trachea  and  bronchi  (neck  and  anterior  part  of  the 
thorax) — mucous  rales.  The  bird  may  be  seen  to  gasp  for 
air  by  extending  the  head  upward.  This  is  due  to  an  accu- 
muhUion  of  mucus  in  the  air  passages  which  partially  closes 
them,  thus  preventing  the  bird  from  getting  enough  oxygen 
into  its  lungs.  The  affected  bird  coughs,  and  there  may  be 
dullness  and  partial  loss  of  appetite. 

The  condition  may  pass  off  in  a  few  days,  may  respond  to 
treatment,  or  may  last  for  several  weeks  and  end  in  recovery 
or  in  death.  In  the  latter  case  there  is  marked  emaciation; 
in  the  former  the  bird  coughs  up  mucus  for  a  long  time,  but 
otherwise  appears  well. 

Treatment. — A  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil,  to  which  5  to 

10  drops  of  turpentine  have  been  added  may  be  given,  and  if 

catarrh  be  present,   treatment  should  be  as  outlined  unde^ 

roup.     Give   one-grain  doses  quinin  sulphate  three  times   a 

day.     Place  the  bird  in  warm,  clean,   comfortable  quarters, 

free  from  drafts.     Give  plenty  of  clean  water  and  soft  feed 

(bread  or  middlings  moistened  with  milk),  to  which  has  been 

added  2  grains  of  black  antimony  for  each  bird.     Feed  twice 

daily. 

There  is  a  bronchitis  and  tracheitis  found  among  fowls  that  is 
apparently  contagious.  This  disease  occurs  in  the  same  pen  each 
year  when  young,  apparently  susceptible  birds  are  placed  in  such 
yards.  The  affected  bird  manifests  a  rattling  in  the  throat  and 
trachea,  wheezes,  coughs,  the  comb  and  face  appear  dark  and  the 
bird  loses  flesh.  Laying  hens  cease  to  lay  and  cocks  cease  to 
fertilize  eggs.  The  treatment  that  has  given  excellent  results  con- 
sists of  injecting  into  the  trachea  some  of  the  menthol  and  oil 
mixture  mentioned  under  treatment  for  roup.  To  do  this  one 
attendant  must  hold  the  bird,  a  second  hold  the  mouth  open  and 
the  operator  forcing  the  larynx  up  with  one  hand  drops,  with  a 
medicine  dropper,  some  of  the  above  mixture  into  the  trachea. 
Usually  about  three  or  four  drops  are  sufficient.  This  should  be 
repeated  every  two  or  three  days  if  necessary. 

CONGESTION  OF  THE  LUNGS 

This  is  an  engorgement  of  the  ])lood  vessels  of  the  lungs. 
Congestion  of  the  lungs  is  quite  apt  to  result  in  pneumonia, 
of  which  it  may  l)e  said  to  be  the  first  stage.  It  has  been 
observed  in  young  birds  and  in  birds  during  their  molting 
season,  when  they  are  poorly  clad  with  feathers  and  exposed 
to  inclement  weather. 

Young  chicks  that  are  allowed  to  run  out  in  the  early  morn- 
ing and  become  wet  with  cold  dew,  and  chicks  allowed  to 
become  wet  with  the  cold  spring  rains  and  become  chilled, 
are  likely  to  suffer  from  congestion  oF  the  lungs  and  pneu- 
monia. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  PASSAGES  171 

A  contraction  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  skin  and  periphery 
forces  an  abnormal  amount  of  blood  to  the  internal  organs, 
and  congestion  is  the  result.  Improper  feeding  and  lack  of 
exercise  are  also  contril)uting  factors.  Birds  having  this  ail- 
ment will  be  noted  to  be  sleepy  and  stupid,  and  to  breathe 
rapidly.  In  some  cases  the  breathing  is  difficult.  The  comb 
becomes  bluish  and  the  bird  may  die  because  it  cannot  get 
enough  air  into  the  lungs  (asphyxiation).  Upon  postmortem 
examination  the  lungs  will  be  found  engorged  with  blood. 

The  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the  engorged  blood  vessels 
of  the  lungs  may  close  the  smaller  air  passages  which  they 
surround,  or  may  burst  their  thin  walls  and  fill  the  bronchi 
with  blood.     In  either  case  rapid  asphyxiation  occurs. 

Treatment. — Congestion  of  the  lungs  runs  an  exceedingly 
rapid  course,  terminating  in  recovery,  pneumonia,  or  death. 
Treatment  is  impractical.  The  ailment  should  ])e  prevented 
by  good  feeding  and  adequate  protection  from  cold  or  wet 
weather. 

PNEUMONIA— INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  LUNGS 

Bronchitis,  described  in  the  foregoing,  often  terminates  in 
pneumonia  (broncho-pneumonia).  It  has  been  the  experi- 
ence of  the  writer  that  broncho-pneumonia,  following  an  at- 
tack of  bronchitis,  is  the  commonest  form  of  the  disease. 

The  causes  of  pneumonia  are  the  same  as  the  causes  of 
colds  and  bronchitis,  except  that  the  exposure  is  often  more 

severe. 

Symptoms.— There  is  an  entire  loss  of  appetite,  with  thirst 
and  constipation.  The  bird  stands  with  the  head  drawn  in. 
drooping  wings  and  ruffled  feathers;  breathing  is  rapid  and 
painful,  and  there  may  or  may  not  be  coughing.  There  is 
usually  a  discharge  of  thick,  adhesive  mucus  from  the  nos- 
trils: the  eyes  may  be  inflamed  and  water  freely.  The  bird 
has  every  appearance  of  severe  illness. 

Treatment. — Except  in  the  case  of  birds  of  unusual  value, 
treatment  is  wholly  impractical,  owing  to  the  amount  of  care 
and  nursing  necessary  and  because  of  the  doubtful  outcome. 

If  treatment  is  undertaken,  the  birds  should  be  warmly 
housed  and  the  best  of  ventilation  maintained.  Spirits  of 
camphor,  two  drops,  and  brandy,  10  drops,  should  be  given 
hourlv  in  a  teaspoonful  of  warm  milk :  if  the  comb  becomes 
dark,'  add  one  drop  of  fluid  extract  of  digitalis  to  the  medi- 
cation. 

Aidopsij. —Vpon  opening  the  bird  that  has  died  from  pneu- 
monia, the  affected  part  of  the  Inner  will  be  found  to  be 
dark  red,  and  when  cut  through  it  is  liver-like  in  appearance 


172  POULTRY  DISEASES 

and  texture.     Serum  (yellowish  fluid)   and  blood  may  exude 
from  the  surface. 

PNEUMOMYCOSIS— ASPERGILLOSIS 

This  disease  is  due  to  a  fungus  belonging  to  the  genus 
aspergillus,  an  organism  similar  to  the  common  green  molds. 
The  species  that  usually  affects  the  lungs  of  birds  is  the 
Aspergillus  fumigaUts. 

Symptoms. — The  affected  birds  are  sluggish  and  stay  apart 
from  the  remainder  of  the  flock ;  they  sit  about  on  the  roosts, 
or  in  some  corner;  they  are  very  weak,  and  later  become  un- 
able to  stand.  There  is  a  loss  of  appetite ;  the  feathers  have 
an  unkempt  appearance ;  the  wings  are  drooping  and  the  eyes 
])artially  closed.  The  respiration  is  accelerated  and  there  is 
a  rattling  of  mucus  in  the  trachea  and  bronchi.  Fever  is 
present,  and  there  is  ordinarily  considerable  thirst.  The 
affected  bird  usually  dies  after  a  prolonged  illness. 

Postmortem  Appearance. — Whitish  or  yellowish  nodules, 
varying  in  size  up  to  a  pea,  will  be  noted  in  the  affected 
parts;  which  may  be  the  trachea,  bronchi,  lungs  and  the  vari- 
ous air  sacs.  The  fungus  may  grow  upon  the  surface  of  the 
mucous  membranes  forming,  at  first,  a  felt-like,  whitish  mass 
which  takes  on  color  according  to  the  species  of  the  fungus 
as  it  fruits  (forms  spores).  This  membranous  material,  to 
the  naked  eye,  resembles  a  fibropurulent  exudate.  The  ob- 
struction of  the  air  sacs  causes  the  difficult  breathing  and 
asphyxiation. 

Inflammation  is  evident  in  the  diseased  areas.  Sections 
through  these  areas  of  disease  show  the  mycelia  (thread-like 
branches  of  the  mold)  and  the  characteristic  spores.  Focal 
necrosis,  preceded  by  cloudy  swelling,  is  noted  in  the  kidneys 
and  other  vital  organs.  A  secondary  invasion  of  pus-produc- 
ing organisms  may  take  place  and  on  autopsy  abscesses  may 
be  found  in  the  liver,  kidneys,  spleen  and  other  organs. 

Treatment.— This  is  a  difficult  problem.  Placing  the  af- 
fected birds  in  a  close  box  and  smoking  them  with  tar  has 
been  advocated.  Efforts  should  be  made  to  eradicate  the 
disease  from  the  premises  by  cleaning  and  disinfecting  them 
as  for  roup  and  other  infectious  diseases.  (See  pages  110 
and  179.) 

SWELL-HEAD  IN  YOUNG  TURKEYS 

The  most  characteristic  symptoms  of  this  ailment  is  swell- 
ing of  certain  parts  of  the  head,  especially  in  the  region  of 
the  maxillary  or  infraorbital  sinus,  which  becomes  filled  with 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  PASSAGES  173 

a  gelatinous,  colorless  substance.  (For  location  of  this  sinus 
see  Fig.  2,  No.  31.) 

These  swellings  may  disappear  in  a  few  days  or  weeks  or 
may  remain  for  several  months.  In  the  latter  instance  th(? 
swelling  may  contain  a  cheesy  material  of  foul  odor,  and  in 
some  cases  cause  death. 

Treatment. — Open  the  swollen  part  and  allow  the  morbid 
collection  to  drain  out.  In  addition,  use  the  same  treatment 
as  outlined  under  roup. 

CHICKENPOX 

This  disease  affects  chickens,  turkeys,  pigeons  and  geese. 

Cause. — Some  investigations  indicate  that  it  is  due  to  an 
ultra-microscopic  virus  (germ)  and  that  the  same  germ  is  also 
the  cause  of  avian  diphtheria,  or  roup.  The  two  conditions 
are,  in  many  cases,  found  associated.  (An  ultra-microscopic 
germ  is  one  that  will  pass  through  the  pores  of  porcelain 
filters  and  cannot  be  seen  with  the  microscope  or  grown  in 
visible  quantities  upon  culture  media.) 

In  structure  the  nodules  resemble  an  epithelioma.  Con- 
tagious chiekenpox  can  be  transmitted  from  an  emulsion  of 
the  material  of  a  pox  nodule,  by  inoculating  the  face  and 
comb  of  a  healthy  bird. 

It  has  been  proved  that  a  maceration  of  the  scrapings  from 
the  pox  in  physiological  salt  solution  and  injected  subcutane- 
ously,  will  render  immunity  against  further  inoculation  of 
the  disease  by  scarification  and  introduction  of  the  virus  in 
the  face  and  comb. 

One  investigator  has  claimed  that  chiekenpox  is  due  to  a 
protozoon  (an  animal  parasite  microscopic  in  size),  but  other 
investigators  have  failed  to  find  this  organism. 

Symptoms. — The  disease  appears  as  small  nodules,  varying 
nin-point  size  up  to  the  size  of  a  pea,  or  even  much  larger. 
It  mav  be  accompanied  by  roup ;  in  fact,  we  have  studied 
both  diseases  in  the  same  flock,  an  occurrence  w^hich  is  not 
uncommon.  The  question  naturally  arises.  Are  both  due  to 
filtrable  viruses,  and  are  both  present  in  the  same  outbreak, 
or  are  both  due  to  the  same  cause?  Fig.  65  illustrates  a 
case  of  this  disease.  The  nodules  or  pimples  are  at  first 
smooth  and  firm.  They  may  be  red  and  have  a  hyperemic 
zone.  Later  the  surface  may  ulcerate  and  spread  until  a  sore 
a  half-inch  in  diameter  is  observed.  With  proper  treatment 
these  usually  heal.  The  general  tendency  of  chiekenpox  is  to 
run   a  mild   course. 

]\rosquito  bites  form  red  pimples,  Avhich  must  be  differenti- 
ated from  pox  nodules. 


174 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


One  investigator  has  reported  that  innnunity  against  chiek- 
enpox  does  not  confer  immunity  to  roup. 

Haring  and  Kofoid  have  shown  that  there  is  a  specific  antibody 
developed  in  birds  affected  with  chickenpox.  By  the  use  of  the 
complement-fixation  method  the  blood  from  the  diseased  fowl  ex- 
hibited fixation  of  the  complement  not  shown  by  normal  fowl 
blood,  thus  showing  that  it  is  a  specific  germ  disease.  The  antigen 
was  prepared  both  from  the  tumors  on  the  head  and  from  the  liver 
of  birds  sick  of  the  disease. 

Treatment. — The  same  sanitary  regulations  should  be  put 
into  force  as  under  fowl  cholera.     No  birds  should  be  sold 


Fig.  65.     Chicken  Pox. 
A,    epithelial,    tuinor-like    nodules;    B,    an    vilcer. 

J'roiu  the  iiock  while  the  disease  exists  among  them,  ("lean- 
ing of  yards  and  houses  and  keeping  them  clean,  as  well  as 
frequent  disinfection,  are  essential.  Antiseptics,  as  recom- 
mended under  cholera,  may  be  given  in  the  feed  and  water. 
The  heads  of  affected  birds  should  be  bathed  in  an  antisep- 
tic solution.  The  nodules  may  be  touched  with  lunar  caustic 
and  24  hours  later  covered  with  vaselin. 

DIPHTHERIC  ROUP 

There  is  considerable  confusion  regarding  contagious  epithe- 
lioma and  diphtheria  of  fowls,  and  authorities  upon  infec- 


DISEASES  OP  THE  RESPIRATORY  PASSAGES  175 


tious  diseases  are  not  agreed  as  to  whether  they  are  distinct 
diseases  or  somewhat  different  types  of  one  affection.  The 
reason  for  this  confnsioii  is  readily  apparent  when  a  carefnl 
study  of  the  diseased  l)irds  is  undertaken,  i)rovided  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  outl)reaks  are  considered.  Until  recently 
they  were  considered  as  two  distinct  diseases;  the  former  pre- 
senting "scal)-like"  nodules  upon  the  skin  of  the  unfeathered 
portions  of  the  head;  the  latter  diphtheria-like  false  mem- 
l)ranes  in  the  nose,  mouth,  throat,  eyelids  and  cavities  iu  the 
head.  Diphtheritic  roup  occurs  in  outlireaks  in  which  the 
skin  is  never  affected.  Contagious  epithelioma  may  attack 
the  comb  and  wat- 
tles alone,  but  it 
frequently  affects 
also  the  lining 
mendiranes  of  the 
eyelids,  the  cover- 
ing of  the  front  of 
the  ej^eball  and  the 
mouth  and  nostrils. 
It  is  especially 
likelv  to  attack  the 
borders  of  the  eye- 
lids and  the  cor- 
ners of  the  mouth, 
extending  thence 
to  the  surface  of 
the  adjacent  lining 
membranes.  "When 
the  latter  are  af- 
fected, the  tissue  changes  cannot  be  distinguished  from  those 
which  occur  in  outbreaks  of  diphtheria  in  which  the  skin  is 
never  affected. 

In  many  infectious  diseases  the  microorganisms  which  cause 
them  may  be  distinguished  microscopically  by  some  structural 
or  staining  peculiarity;  or  they  may  be  isolated  and  culti- 
vated in  artificial  media  by  standard  bacteriological  methods 
and  recognized  by  some  property  possessed  by  them;  in  still 
others  there  are  certain  specific  reactions  which  may  be  util- 
ized for  differentiation;  again  the  inoculation  of  test  animals 
may  serve  to  identify  and  separate  them  from  some  other  in- 
fections. In  this  disease  or  group  of  diseases,  those  methods 
are  not  available.  The  microorganism  which  causes  roup  is 
not  known;  it  caiuiot  be  grown  artificially  in  cultures,  nor 
have  the  attempts  to  cultivate  that  which  causes  chickenpox 
or  contagious  epithelioma  succeeded.     Fowls  can  be  success- 


FiG.  66.     Roup  in  a  Chicken. 
A,  bulging  of  infraorbital  or  maxillary  sinus. 


176  POULTRY  DISEASES 

fully  inoculated  with  contagious  epithelioma,  producing  typ- 
ical tissue  changes  upon  the  comb  and  wattles,  or  in  the  eye 
and  mouth,  using  the  virus  contained  in  the  scabs  removed 
from  the  comb  or  wattles  of  sick  birds  for  inoculation.  Such 
inoculations,  however,  do  not  serve  to  distinguish  one  disease 
from  the  other,  provided  contagious  epithelioma  and  diph- 
theria or  roup  are  separate  and  distinct  diseases. 

Transmission  of  the  disease  is  not  very  difficult.  Usually 
about  70  per  cent  of  healthy  birds  will  show  symptoms  of 
the  disease  after  associating  with  an  affected  one  for  a  short 
time.  Actual  contact  is  not  necessary,  as  is  shown  by  the 
spread  of  the  disease  at  poultry  shows.  It  has  been  noted 
that  in  experimental  work  in  using  an  infecting  bird  with 
pox  lesions,  mucous  membrane  lesions  of  roup  would  appear 
in  the  birds  subjected  to  and  developing  the  disease,  and  in 
some  cases  where  the  roup  type  was  used,  pox  lesions  would 
develop  in  the  exposed  contracting  birds. 

Emulsions  of  scrapings  from  either  cutaneous  or  mucous 
membrane  lesions  injected  subcutaneously,  submucously  or  ap- 
plied to  scarified  areas  on  the  skin,  would  in  some  cases  pro- 
duce the  generalized  form  of  the  disease,  that  is,  both  pox  and 
roup  types  combined. 

As  hinted  before  in  this  disease,  there  are  secondary  in- 
vaders which  cause  ago^ravated  symptoms.  These  infections 
manifest  themselves  after  the  filtrable  virus  has  produced 
more  mild  symptoms.  The  more  common  of  these  secondary 
invaders  is  the  Bacillus  diphtlieriae  columhariim  of  Loeffler. 

Therefore  the  filtrable  virus  is  the  necessary  primary  in- 
vader which  lowers  the  bird's  resistance  and  thus  prepares 
the  tissues  for  the  invasion  by  the  secondary  organisms. 
Neither  factor  alone  will  cause  the  typical  disease. 

Mode  of  Spread. — Diphtheric  roup  is  spread  by  birds  intro- 
duced into  a  flock  from  infected  premises,  and  by  exposure,  as 
at  poultry  shows.  A  chronic  type  of  the  disease  in  one  or 
more  birds  (carriers)  in  a  flock  may  serve  to  infect  others 
when  they  are  weakened  by  predisposing  causes,  as  by  ex- 
posure to  cold  or  dampness,  or  by  roosting  in  drafts,  or  in 
badly  ventilated  buildings.  The  beak  bathed  with  nasal  dis- 
charges constantly  contaminates  the  drinking  water  and  feed. 

Symptoms. — There  are  three  forms  of  the  disease  or  the 
lesions.     Any  or  all  may  be  present  in  the  same  bird. 

1.  The  nasal  type. — This  type  is  characterized  at  first  by  a 
thin,  watery  discharge  with  an  offensive  odor  characteristic  of 
roup.  Later  the  catarrhal  product  becomes  somewhat  thicker 
(mucopurulent)  and  the  nostrils  become  occluded  fglued 
shut),  and  quite  frequently  there  is  a  bulging  of  the  sinus 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  PASSAGES  177 


(cMvity)  in  front  and  ])olow  the  eye.  This  is  dne  to  an  accn- 
nmhition  of  the  inflaininatory  products  in  this  sinus.  Pig,  66 
illustrates  this  common  swelling. 

2.  The  iliphtheric  type. — This  type  affects  the  mouth  and 
often  accompanies  the  nasal  form.  Fig.  67  illustrates  diph- 
theric ulcerations,  which  are  yellowish  or  yellowish-white  in 
color.  From  these  necrosing  patches  the  disease  receives  its 
name,  avian  diphtheria. 

The  ocular  type. — In  this  form  there  is  first  noted  an 


o 
O. 


Fig.   67.     Diphtheric  Roup   in  a   Chicken. 
A,  the  yellowish-white  diphtheric   patches   on    upper  surface   of  tongue 
and  lower  jaw   (natural  size);   B,  diphtheric  patches   on   hard  palate  and 
upper  jaw. 

inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  covering  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  eyeball  (conjunctivitis).  As  the  disease  pro- 
gresses, the  catarrhal  product  accumulates  as  a  watery,  clot- 
like mass,  whitish  in  color.  The  eyelids  stick  together  and 
hold  the  material  as  it  accumulates,  till  the  part  bulges  out- 
ward. 

There  is  noted  sneezing,  shaking  the  head,  and  expulsion  of 
mucus.  There  is  a  loss  of  appetite,  the  bird  appears  weak, 
walks  unsteadily,  and  becomes  emaciated  rapidly.  At  times 
breathing  is  difficult,  and  there  is  often  a  diarrhea. 


178  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Three  stages  then  follow:  catarrhal,  characterized  by  a 
mucus,  or  mucopurulent,  discharge;  diphtheric,  affecting  the 
mouth  and  throat  and  characterized  by  the  formation  of  a 
mem])rane  on  the  surface  which  may  be  followed  later  by 
sloughing  (formation  of  a  mass  of  dead  tissue)  ;  and  con- 
junctival, affecting  the  eyes,  and  often  causing  a  destruction  of 
the  eyeball. 

General  Symptoms. — In  the  early  stages  before  much  sec- 
ondary infection  takes  place,  there  are  no  marked  general 
symptoms.  Later  marked  general  symptoms  appear.  The 
birds  show  dullness,  assume  a  sitting  posture,  Avings  are  held 
pendant,  plumage  becomes  rough  and  the  patients  show  much 
depression.  The  comb  and  wattles  grow  bluish-red  in  color, 
later  they  are  pale  and  cold.  In  the  colder  climates  the  dis- 
ease often  assumes  a  subacute  or  chronic  form,  while  in 
warmer  climates  the  acute  form  is  more  often  observed.  Fre- 
quently, however,  the  disease  assumes  the  character  of  a 
chronic  catarrh. 

Diagnosis. — The  disease  usually  makes  its  first  appearance 
in  the  fall  of  the  year  and  often  occurs  as  the  cutaneous 
form ;  it  may  be  overlooked,  especially  if  the  birds  are  on  the 
range.  The  mucous  membrane  form  usually  makes  its  ap- 
pearance soon  after  housing  for  the  winter.  The  sneezing, 
mouth  breathing,  occluded  nostrils,  and  an  occasional  in- 
flamed eye,  are  significant  especially  when  rapidly  spreading 
through  the  flock.  Soon  after,  a  few  will  refuse  food  and 
appear  depressed. 

It  must  also  be  suspected  when  similar  symptoms  appear 
after  adding  new  birds  to  a  healthy  flock  or  returned  birds 
from  shows. 

A  peculiar  characteristic  and  offensive  odor  is  associated 
with  this  disease,  and  poultrymen  familiar  with  it  often  rec- 
ognize the  disease  from  the  odor  alone.  The  same  odor  is 
given  off  by  cultures. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — AVounds  on  the  skin  around  the 
head,  usually  pick  inflicted,  appear  suspicious,  but  these  heal 
rapidly  without  extensive  thickening.  An  injury  to  thc^  eye, 
even  though  serious,  will  not  cause  the  formation  of  the 
characteristic  yellow  deposit.  Difficvdr  respiration  is  rarely 
seen  in  more  than  one  bird  in  a  flock.  Healthy  Hocks  and 
those  intended  for  exhibition  purposes  may  be  vaccinated  to 
establish  immunitv.  This  has  proved  very  satisfactory.  The 
immunity  established  will  last  for  at  least  one  year. 

Postmortem  Appearance. — The  toxin  (poison)  from  the 
areas  of  disease  is  very  destructive,  as  the  rapid  emaciation 
of  the  bird,  following  a  severe  attack,  shows.     T^pon  examina- 


DISEASES  OF  THE  IIESPIKATORY  PASSAGES  179 

tiou  of  the  luenibranes  tliat  have  formed  in  tlie  mouth,  it  will 
be  found  that  when  they  are  removed  there  is  left  a  raw, 
granular-appearing  surfaee.  Upon  mieroscopie  examination, 
there  may  be  seen  cellular  infiltration,  witli  a  destruction  of 
cells  of  the  mucous  membrane  underlying  the  diphtheric 
patch.  An  examinati(m  of  the  maxillary  (suborl)ital)  siinis 
(see  Fig.  2,  No.  81)  will  reveal  it  to  be  filled  with  a  purulent 
nuiterial,  which  is  often  cheesy  in  consistency.  The  wall  over 
this  part  is  very  thin  and  can  be  easily^  opened  w4th  a  knife. 

A  microscopic  study  of  sections  of  the  head,  through  the 
infiamed  area  (the  mucous  lining  of  the  nasal  passage)  show^s 
considerable  thickening  and  an  acute  inflammation  (invasion 
of  pohjmorpJionuclear  lenkocytes)  ;  at  times  the  entire  pas- • 
sage  is  "plugged"  with  the  mucus. 

On  examination  of  the  eye  and  mucous  membrane  sur- 
rounding the  anterior  portion  of  the  eyeball,  there  may  be 
seen  a  cloudy  condition  of  the  cornea,  the  anterior  portion 
of  the  ball  (keratitis).  There  is  also  an  acute  inflammation 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  eye  (acute  conjunctivitis). 

In  cases  studied  in  this  laboratory  it  has  been  found  that 
the  acute  inflammation  extends  to  the  iris  and  ciliary  mus- 
cles and  their  surrounding  structures. 

Treatment. — Correct  any  bad  sanitation  or  hygiene,  which 
may  be  a  predisposing  cause.  The  henhouse  should  be  well 
ventilated,  but  should  allow  no  drafts  on  the  birds,  and 
should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  dampness.  It  should  be 
cleaned  and  disinfected  daily  wnth  some  of  the  mixtures  here- 
tofore described  and  recommended  for  this  purpose.  If  the 
bird  is  not  a  valuable  one,  kill  and  cremate  it,  the  body  as 
well  as  the  head. 

General  Preventive  Measures. — Isolation  of  all  diseased 
fowls  from  the  flock  and  the  removal  and  l)urning  of  all  dead 

fowds. 

Cleaning  and  disinfecting  of  the  houses  and  yards.  The 
resistance  of  chickenpox  virus  to  the  action  of  disinfectants 
makes  it  imperative  to  disinfect  the  houses  and  yards  thor- 
oughly. 

Quarantining  for  two  weeks  of  all  the  new  stock  and  of 
birds  returned  from  poultry  exhibits. 

Careful  examination  of  each  fowl  occasionally,  if  the  dis- 
ease is  present  in  the  neighborhood. 

Preventive  Vaccination. — The  immunization  of  fowds  against 
chickenpox  has  been  practiced  by  a  number  of  investigators. 

:\redicinal  treatment  differs,  with  the  location  of  the  lesion. 
For  the  ulcers,  or  diphtheric  patches,  in  the  mouth,  nothing 
is  better  than  cauterizing  wdth  lunar  caustic.     A  solution  of 


180  POULTRY  DISEASES 

silver  nitrate  cannot  be  used,  as  the  fluid  will  run  down  and 
burn  other  parts  of  the  mouth  and  throat. 

With  the  thumb  and  finger  press  open  the  eyelids  and  with 
clean  absorbent  cotton  remove  the  white  catarrhal  material, 
then  apply  the  same  remedy  as  for  injection  into  the  nos- 
trils. The  following  has  given  good  results  in  our  experi- 
mental work  and  with  those  to  whom  we  have  recommended  it : 

Wash  out  the  nasal  passage  with  a  twenty  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  sodium  bicarbonate  (common  baking  soda),  using  a 
medicine  dropper  or,  better,  a  small  syringe,  as  the  material 
must  be  forced  so  as  to  pass  through  the  nasal  passage  into 
the  mouth  (refer  to  Fig.  2,  Xos.  29  to  33),  Then  inject,  in 
like  manner,  peroxid  of  hydrogen.  The  soda  dissolves  and 
removes  the  mucus,  and  the  peroxid  of  hydrogen  cleans  out 
the  cavity.  The  parts  should  then  be  cleansed  with  essential 
oils,  which  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  inflamed  mucous 
membranes.    Inject  a  quantity  of  the  following: 

Oil  of  thyme 30  drops 

Oil  of   eucalyptus 20  drops 

Menthol   10    grains 

Oil  of  petrol 2  ounces 

Mix  thoroughly. 

In  aggravated  cases,  repeat  this  treatment  three  times  a 
day.  Give  an  abundance  of  clean  water  and  soft,  easily  di- 
gested feed. 

DIPHTHERIC  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  EYES  IN  DUCKS 

There  is  first  noticed  an  itching  of  the  eyes  manifested  by 
the  cluck  rubbing  them.  There  is  noted  later  an  inflammation 
of  the  conjunctival  mucous  membrane  accompanied  by  a 
thick  yellowish  secretion.  Diphtheric  areas  may  develop  with 
ulceration  of  the  cornea.  The  conjunctival  discharge  ap- 
pears to  be  caustic  to  the  skin  with  which  it  may  come  in 
contact.  The  ducks  become  emaciated.  The  disease  may  last 
for  several  weeks.  There  appears  to  be  no  marked  changes 
in  the  internal  organs. 

POX  OF  TURKEYS 

We  have  been  studying  a  condition  among  turkeys  in  this 
laboratory  for  the  past  few  months  that  appears  to  be  dif- 
ferent from  any  disease  we  have  heretofore  studied.  It  is,  in 
some  years,  ciuite  prevalent  in  the  Southeastern  States  and 
\n  Cu,)a. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  PASSAGES  181 

Tlie  turkeys  brought  to  the  hx])oratory  were  kept  in  the 
hnek  yard  of  a  eity  residence.  There  were  four  in  the  flock 
and  one  aft(M-  tlie  other  liad  ])ecoine  affected. 


Fig.   68.      Skiagraph  of  Head   and   Neck  of   Chicken. 
A.   trachea;    B,   esophagus:    C,    vertebra,    D,   crop  filled  with    grains   of 
wheat;   E,  infraorbital  or  maxillary  sinus;   F,   frontal   sinus;  G,   feathers; 
H,  nostrils;   I,  eyes;   J,  musculature. 

From  the  standpoint  of  a  field  study  it  appears  to  be  con- 
tagious. 

The  pox  are  noted  on  the  unfeathered  portions  of  the  head 


182  POULTRY  DISEASES 

and  neck.  There  is  at  first  noted  a  small  pimple-like  eleva- 
tion, Avhicli  gradually  becomes  larger  and  in  the  course  of 
a  few  days  may  appear  four  or  even  five  millimeters  in  diam- 
eter and  tAvo  or  three  millimeters  in  elevation.  They  do 
not  appear  as  is  the  case  in  chickenpox ;  that  is,  they  have 
no  rounded  l)leb-like  appearance,  but  have  almost  perpendicu- 
lar walls,  with  flat  tops,  and  are  shaijed  like  an  opera  hat. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  days,  in  many  cases  without  any 
treatment,  the  diseased  area  becomes  dry  and  the  side  walls 
may  be  picked  off,  leaving  a  whitish,  scar-like  spot.  The 
disease  usually  does  not  appear  very  virulent  and  little  or  no 
treatment  is  required.  In  some  cases  where  we  have  advised 
the  use  of  a  five  per  cent  carbolized  vaselin,  excellent  results 
have  been  reported.  Again,  where  we  have  had  cases  under 
our  observation,  they  recovered  without  treatment.  How- 
ever, there  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  at  times  the  attacks 
are  rather  severe  and  may  even  cause  death.  While  this  has 
been  reported  to  us  upon  good,  reliable  sources,  yet  we  have 
not  personally  made  such,  observations.  The  cases  studied 
in  the  laboratory  did  not  appear  to  suffer  constitutionally, 
as  there  was  no  loss  of  appetite  and  the  birds  were  in  good 
flesh. 

Onl}^  one  test  was  made  to  determine  if  the  disease  could 
be  transmitted.  The  curetted  material  from  a  fresh  nodule 
was  rubbed  in  a  scarified  area  of  the  comb  of  a  three-year-old 
White  Orpington  cock.  The  results  of  this  one  test  were 
negative.  No  opportunity  was  afforded  to  conduct  experi- 
ments upon  birds  not  exposed  to  the  disease,  though  such 
procedure  is  contemplated. 

CONTAGIOUS  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE  AIR  SACS  IN 

GEESE 

This  is  an  infectious  disease  caused  by  a  slender  bacillus. 

The  symptoms  are  those  of  weakness,  staggery  gait,  great  depres- 
sion, difficultly  in  rising,  kicking  at  the  head,  accelerated  respira- 
tion, snoring  sounds  and  opening  the  mouth.  The  bird  usually  dies 
in  about  six  to  eight  days.  The  disease  is  confined  exclusively  to 
geese. 

On  autopsy  the  air  sacs  are  noted  to  appear  yellowish  in  color, 
with  their  inner  surfaces  covered  with  a  fibrinous  material.  Similar 
deposits  are  found  on  the  serous  surfaces  of  the  liver,  spleen,  intes- 
tines and  peritoneum. 

CONTAGIOUS   NASAL   CATARRH    OF   BIRDS 

This  condition  has  been  called  Coryza  avium  contagiosa. 
Cause. — This   disease  can    be   reproduced  by  ex])eri mental 
inoculation.      It    occurs    ('|)i/o()ticany.    mostly    amonii'    young 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  PASSAGES  183 

fowls,  during-  damp,  cold  weather  and  more  often  in  the  fall 
or  spring.  It  may  attack  old  hens.  Here  it  is  of  economic 
importance  l)ecause  of  the  loss  in  the  egg  yield.  Many  young 
birds  succuml)  to  its  ravages.  The  mucous  secretions  of  the 
head  contain  the  virus.  A  bacillus  resem])ling  in  some  re- 
spects the  diphtheria  bacillus  has  been  found  accompanying 
the  disease  which  Colin  and  others  have  termed  the  bacillus 
of  fowl  diphtheria. 

Symptoms. — The  contagium  is  spread  by  the  nasal  dis- 
charges becoming  disseminated.  The  entire  ilock  in  the  course 
of  two  to  six  weeks  may  become  affected.  The  sick  bird 
stays  apart  from  the  balance  of  the  flock  and  sits  around  with 
I'uffled  feathers  and  droopy  wings.  There  is  a  partial  loss 
of  appetite,  tears  may  be  seen  to  accumulate  in  the  con- 
junctiva. The  outer  nasal  passage  becomes  closed  and  breath- 
ing is  accomplished  with  difficulty  and  by  way  of  the  mouth. 
The  bird  sneezes  and  shakes  its  head.  The  eyes  are  kept 
closed  and  the  eyelids  become  adherent  by  a  small  amount 
of  secretions  which  dry  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  lids.  The 
infra -orbital  sinus  may  become  filled  and  bulge  out,  much  as 
is  often  the  case  in  roup.  The  mortality  may  run  as  high 
as  95  per  cent.  The  nasal  secretions  remain  thin.  It  is  dif- 
ferentiated from  roup  by  the  fact  that  diphtheric  membranes 
never  form  in  the  mouth  or  eye  and  there  are  no  sores  on  the 
head  in  contagious  nasal  catarrh. 

Treatment. — The  same  treatment  and  other  sanitary  regu- 
lations as  in  roup  are  indicated  in  this  malady. 

CONJUNCTIVITIS 

Most  inflammations  of  the  respiratory  passages  extend  to 
and  involve  the  eye  structures  also.  These  affections  of  the 
eye  have  been  described  under  catarrh,  roup,  etc. 

There  are  many  causes  of  inflammation  of  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  eye  aside  from  the  specific  germs  heretofore 
mentioned.  A  chick  was  brought  to  our  laboratory  with  one 
eye  swollen.  Upon  examination,  there  was  found  a  piece  of 
straw  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length  lodged  in  the 
conjunctival  sac.  Upon  removal  of  this  piece  of  straw,  and 
the  application  of  a  one-per-cent  solution  of  zinc  sulphate, 
the  inflammation  subsided  in  the  course  of  a  day  or  two. 

The  number  and  variety  of  foreign  bodies  that  may  gain 
access  to  the  eye  structures  and  set  up  inflammation  are 
num])erless.  In  most  cases  their  careful  removal  and  ^vash- 
ing  the  eye  with  a  saturated  solution  of  boracic  acid  or  a  so- 
lution of  zinc  sulphate  and  water,  1  to  100,  constitute  all 
the  treatment  that  is  required. 


184 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


Similar  washes  are  indicated  for  conjunctivitis  due  to  in- 
juries, spurring,  picking  blows,  etc. 

ULCERATION  OF  THE  CORNEA 

Conjunctivitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane 
surrounding  the  anterior  part  of  the  eyeball.  At  times  this 
inflammation  spreads  hy  contiguity  to  the  cornea.  The  in- 
flamed cornea  becomes  cloudy  and  finally  may  totally  obstruct 
the  eyesight.  There  is  frequently  found  in  connection  with 
this  an  ulceration  of  the  cornea.  Fig.  69  is  a  case  of  a  single 
comb  Rhode  Island  Red  chick  which  had  developed  keratitis 
when  three  weeks  of  age.  The  eye  was  enucleated,  hardened 
in  40  per  cent  formaldehyd  solution  and  sectioned  for  study. 
It  was  found  that  there  was  a  pan-hemorrhagic  condition. 

Ulceration  of  the  cornea  is  sometimes  found  in  conjunction 
with  the  eye  type  of  roup.  There  is  an  intense  conjunctivitis, 
an  accumulation  of  quantities  of  purulent  or  catarrhal  prod- 
ucts in  the  conjunctival  sac  and  a  keratitis  and  later  panoph- 
thalmia. 


Fig,   69.     Ulceration   of  the  Cornea  with  Hemorrhage  Into  the 

Anterior,    Posterior    and    Vitreous    Chambers    in    a 

Three  Days  Old  Chick. 


RESPIRATORY  TROUBLES  OF  CANARIES 

The  cage  of  the  canaries  should  be  kept  clean,  free  from 
drafts  and  the  birds  should  have  a  well  regulated  food  sup- 
ply. When  the  bird  is  first  noticed  to  be  ill,  isolate  it,  regulate 
the  diet  and  look  to  good  sanitary  conditions  of  the  cage  and 
keep  it  in  a  well  regulated  temperature.  Canaries  are  sub- 
ject to  cold  drafts  and  it  may  be  said  that  most  of  their  com- 
mon ailments  come  from  this  sort  of  exposure. 

In  ordinary  colds  there  is  noted  difficult  breathing,  with 


DISEASES  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  PASSAGES  185 

some  liquid  discharge  from  the  nostrils.  This  may  be  ac- 
companied with  coughing.  As  the  cold  progresses  the  symp- 
toms become  more  aggravated.  Breathing  becomes  more  dif- 
ficult and  rapid.  The  catarrhal  secretions  may  partially  or 
completely  block  the  nasal  passage. 

ASTHMA  OF  CANARIES 

This  is  a  chronic  affection  of  canary  birds.  In  the  breath- 
ing processes  there  is  a  labored  expiration.  In  severe  cases 
a  contraction  of  abdominal  muscles  is  evident  in  forcing  air 
from  the  lungs.  Asthma  is  more  evident  at  night,  and  often 
birds  apparently  free  from  it  during  the  day  will  wheeze 
when  at  rest. 

False  asthma  may  be  caused  by  indigestion  and  overeat- 
ing. Fanciers  consider  asthma  as  hereditary  and  do  not 
recommend  such  birds  for  breeding.  There  is  little  that  can 
be  done  for  this  condition  except  to  give  a  light  diet. 

Treatment. — Place  in  the  drinking  cup  one  ounce  of  water 
to  which  has  been  added  20  drops  of  syrup  of  tolu,  10  drops 
sweet  spirits  of  niter,  and  10  drops  of  glycerin.  If  the  case 
is  severe  add  10  drops  of  whiskey  or  brandy.  Pneumonia  is 
quite  often  fatal.  The  birds  become  very  weak  and  usually 
die  in  from  two  to  seven  days. 


SECTION  XII 

DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  LOCOMOTION 

LEG  WEAKNESS 

This  is  a  coiuntion  in  whieli  the  ])irds  cannot  bear  their  own 
weJsrht  or  have  difficulty  in  doing  so.  It  occurs  in  young  as 
well  as  in  old  birds  but  there  is  a  possibility  that  the  cause 
in  young  birds  is  different  from  that  in  old  Inrds.  Knowledge 
as  "to  the  causes  of  leg  weakness,  so  common  at  times  in  certain 
localities,  is  imperfect.  The  conditions  are  being  investigated, 
however,  in  several  laboratories. 

Possible  Causes. — In  young  chicks  some  of  the  causes  are 
believed  to  be  improperly  heated  brooders,  too  much  bottom 
heat,  damp  and  badly  ventilated  houses  and  keeping  chicks 
constantly  on  wooden  floors.  We  have  seen  it  in  our  flocks 
where  they  were  on  wooden  floors  and  as  soon  as  they  were 
turned  out  on  dirt  runs  the  disease  disappeared.  It  has  been 
reported  where  the  chicks  were  kept  on  cement  floors  but 
usually  disappearing,  as  in  our  experience,  when  the  chicks 
are  allowed  to  run  out  on  dirt  during  the  warmer  part  of 
the  day.  There  is  little  doubt  that  overheating  and  too  much 
under  heat  is  one  prime  causative  factor;  for,  since  the  hov- 
ers supply! nsr  top  instead  of  under  heat  came  into  common 
use  there  does  not  appear  to  be  so  much  leg  weakness  among 
the  baby  chicks.  It  appears  to  be  the  artifically-brooded  chicks 
that  develop  leg  weakness  and  the  disease  is  supposed  to  be 
unknown  among  the  natural  brooded  chicks  especially  where 
the  hen  and  brood  are  provided  with  the  combination  sitting 
and  brooding  coop. 

Leg  weakness  may  be  observed  in  birds  that  are  heavily 
fed  and  that  grow^  rapidly  and  where  the  birds'  weight  ap- 
pears to  increase  faster  than  their  strength.  Overcrowding 
and  close  ventilation  are  no  doubt  contributing  factors. 

In  adult  birds  leg  weakness  may  be  due  to  rheumatism  and 
possibly  to  some  extent  this  may  be  the  case  in  younger  birds. 
Cockerels  are  apparently  more  often  affected  than  pull (4s. 
Tt  is  aj^parently  inore  prevalent  among  the  heavier  breeds 
than  among  the  lighter  ones. 

!^}fi)}pto)ns. — Leg  weakness  or  paralysis  among  old  birds  is 
widespread  in  the  Ignited  States.  It  usually  appears  sporad- 
ically and  could  hardly  be  considered  in  the  sense  of  a  con- 
tagion.   In  addition  to  the  leg  weakness  which  at  times  results 


188  POULTRY  DISEASES 

in  a  total  loss  of  the  legs,  there  is  usually  noted  a  fetid 
diarrhea.  The  bird  may  or  may  not  have  a  loss  of  appetite, 
it  gradually  becomes  emaciated  and  finally  dies.  The  bird  in 
the  later  stages  lies  helpless  upon  its  side,  often  with  one  or 
both  legs  extending  backwards  from  the  ])ody. 

Leg  Aveakness  among  baby  chicks  at  times  appears  suddenly 
and  with  a  change  in  environmental  conditions  it  disappears 
just  as  suddenly.  The  worst  eases  die  and  the  milder  ones 
may  recover.  The  condition  may  affect  only  one,  or  at  most 
a  few  birds.  The  same  condition  also  applies  to  old  birds. 
There  is  unsteadiness  in  walking,  and  in  badly  affected  cases 
the  bird  sits  around  till  finally  the  muscular  function  is  en- 
tirely arrested  when  the  leg  or  legs  extend  backward  from 
the  body.  In  the  baby  chicks  the  legs  present  a  shriveled 
appearance. 

Birds  so  affected  do  not  find  it  possible  to  obtain  their 
portion  of  feed  unless  helped,  as  the  other  birds  crowd  them 
away.  The  only  safe  way  is  to  remove  them  from  the  flock 
and  give  them  extra  care.  Such  birds,  if  not  helped  and  given 
proper  feed,  do  not  gain  in  flesh  as  do  the  balance  of  the 
flock  and  they  become  thin  in  flesh. 

As  a  differential  diagnosis  between  leg  weakness  and  rheu- 
matism, it  may  be  said  that  in  rheumatism  the  lameness  shifts, 
disappears  and  reappears,  and  in  case  of  affection  of  the 
joints  there  Avill  be  noted  swelling  which  will  be  hot  and 
painful  to  the  touch.  In  leg  weakness  these  symptoms  never 
appear. 

Post  Mortem  Appearance. — No  definite  lesions  can  be  found 
in  the  baby  chick  that  has  died  of  leg  weakness.  All  organs 
in  old  fowls  that  have  died  of  paralysis  are  apparently  normal 
except  the  bowel  which  is  highly  injected  and  at  times  may 
show  petechife  of  the  mucosa.  The  vent  fluff  is  usually  soiled 
as  a  result  of  diarrhea. 

All  efforts,  in  this  laboratory,  to  isolate  a  causative  germ 
or  to  reproduce  the  disease  have  failed.  There  has  been  no 
organism  isolated  from  the  blood  nor  from  the  internal  or- 
gans that  will  reproduce  the  disease  and  inoculations  of  emul- 
sions from  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  of  birds  dead  of  the 
disease  have  failed  to  reproduce  it. 

While  we  feel  sure  that  leg  weakness  in  l)aby  chicks  is 
due  to  environmental  conditions,  we  are  not  so  sure  that 
paralysis  of  adult  fowls  is  not  due  to  a  genn.  Tin's  work  is 
still  being  carried  on  in  this  laboratory. 

Treatment. — Give  to  old  birds  one-sixth  grain  doses  of  sul- 
phate of  strychnin,  in  tablet  form  or  in  capsule,  three  times 
a  day.     If  rheumatism  is  suspected  give  two-grain  doses  of 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OF  LOCOMOTION  189 

salicylate  of  sodium  three  times  a  day.    Give  one  teaspoonful 
of  castor  oil  in  severe  cases  in  adult  fowls. 

Properly  ventilate  the  quarters,  keep  them  clean,  free  from 
dampness,  and  supply  the  birds  with  good  wholesome  feed 
and  water.  If  the  cause  is  a  lack  of  lime  salts  (rachitis), 
milk  and  lime  water  should  be  given  freely.  Feed  ground 
bone  and  meat  meal  to  baby  chicks  and  place  the  chicks  on 
the  ground,  at  least,  through  the  warmer  part  of  the  day. 
Even  temperature  and  proper  heat  must  be  supplied  baby 
chicks  at  all  times.  We  have  found  by  laboratory  studies 
fhat  fifteen  minutes  chilling  may  cause  congestion  of  the 
lungs  and  kidneys  and  result  fatally. 

Remove  the  affected  birds,  in  case  of  disease  among  young 
chicks,  and  reduce  the  amount  of  fat  forming  feeds.  Give 
the  proper  protein  ration.  A  narrow  ration  is  needed.  (N. 
R.  1:3)  Feed  oatmeal  and  oats,  cracked  and  whole  wheat, 
plenty  of  green  feed,  sour  milk  and  one  teaspoonful  fluid  nux 
v^omica  to  each  pint  of  water. 

INFECTIOUS  ARTICULAR  INFLAMMATION  IN  YOUNG 

GEESE  AND  DUCKS 

Freeze  and  Lucet  report  infectious  arthritis  in  young  ducks 
and  geese  five  to  eight  weeks  old.  The  organism  isolated  in 
all  their  investigations  was  the  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  au- 
reus. They  were  able  to  reproduce  the  disease  with  inocula- 
tions of  pure  cultures  of  the  organism. 

Symptoms. — The  acute  type  causes  lameness.  If  the  affected 
joint  is  in  the  w^ing,  the  wing  will  hang  pendulous.  There  is  >i 
loss  of  appetite,  diarrhea  and  at  times  slight  conjunctivitis. 
The  course  is  rapid,  resulting  fatally  in  three  or  four  days 
after  the  first  manifestation  of  the  disease. 

In  the  chronic  type,  arthritis  is  the  most  prominent  symp- 
tom. Diarrhea  may  be  present  in  the  onset  of  the  disease 
and  the  bird  may  recover  in  two  to  three  weeks.  The  bird  is 
stunted  and  does  not  fatten  satisfactorily. 

The  structural  changes  consist  of  a  serous  or  sero-fibrinous 
inflammation  of  the  joints.  There  is  a  hemorrhagic  inflam- 
mation of  the  bone  marrow.  In  chronic  cases  purulent  osteo- 
myelitis may  occur.     Intestinal  catarrh  is  noted. 

Treatment. — This  consists  of  local  applications;  fomenta- 
tion of  the  affected  joint  with  hot  water  thirty  minutes  twice 
daily. 

PARALYSIS  OF  THE  WINGS  OF  PIGEONS 

The  shoulder  and  elbow  of  the  wing  of  carrier  pigeons  are 
sometimes  affected  by  arthritis,  which  has  been  described  as 


190 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


infectious.  The  affected  wing  droops  and  the  bird  is  unable 
to  fly. 

Predisposino;  causes  are.  housing^  in  cnhl  lofts  and  allowing 
the  birds  to  roost  in  drafts. 

The  affected  birds  should  be  isolated  from  the  l)alance  of 
the  flock. 

Abscess  formation  sometimes  occurs,  pus  being  of  a  case- 
ous consistency.  Birds  may  recoyer,  but  if  abscesses  form 
they  may  lose  the  power  of  flight. 

ABSCESS  OF  THE  FOOT 

Abscess  of  the  foot  may  be  caused  by  injury  due  to  a 
thorn  as  a  Russian  thistle  or  hedge  thorn  haying  punctured 
the  soft  parts.  In  Figure  70  there  is  illustrated  an  abscess 
of  this  nature.  The  thorn  has  penetrated  the  soft  parts  be- 
tween the  two  inner  toes.  A, 
indicates  an  opening  through 
which  a  cheesy  pus  was  re- 
moyed  by  aid  of  a  curette. 
No  treatment  other  than 
opening  the  abscess  and 
scraping  out  the  pus  was 
giyen.  The  bird  made  a  per- 
fect recoyery. 

Abscess  of  the  sole  of  the 
foot  is  of  connnon  occurrence. 
This  condition  is  sometimes 
called  "bumble  foot."  The 
sole  of  the  foot  becomes 
])ruised  by  a  thorn  prick, 
stone  bruise  or  other  injury 
resulting  in  suppuration.  It 
may  also  result  from  birds 
jumping  onto  hard  floors 
from  high  perches.  Pus  in 
the  domestic  fowl  is  always  of 
a  cheesy  nature;  that  is,  there 
is  no  liquid  present  so  that 
simple  lancing  will  not  be  ef- 
fectiye  as  the  pus  will  nut  drain  out,  but  must  be  scraped  out. 
It  is  best  in  treating  these  conditions  to  make  a  bold  incision 
laying  open  the  parts  and  carefully  curette  out  eyery  particle 
of  the  material,  then  saturate  witli  tincture  of  iodin  and  dress 
with  absorbent  cotton  and  bandage.  Dress  the  wound  once 
daily. 

After  treatment  of  the  foot,  place  the  bird  in  a  clean,  dr}^ 
place,  preferably  on  straw,  so  as  to  keep  dirt  out  of  the  sore. 


Fig.   70.     Thorn   Abscess. 

A,  opening   tiirongh   which  clieesy  pus 
was  liberated. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  OKGAXS  OF  LOCOxMOTlON  191 

After  the  foot  has  healed  it  will  l)e  t'ouiul  to  he  somewhat 
larger  than  noi'innl.  Tiie  sole  of  the  foot  will  be  somewhat 
tender  for  a  while,  and  1o  prevent  rehriiising  and  reforma- 
tion of  an  ahseess  it  is  well  to  i)laee  a  leather  pad  on  the  sole 
of  the  foot. 

A  condition  due  to  cactus  thorns  has  recently  ])een  studied. 
This  condition  occurs  in  l)a])y  chicks  and  is  manifested  by 
the  legs  and  feet  becoming  somewhat  shrivelled  or  appearing 
''dried  up."  The  toes  nuiy  become  crooked  and  finally  dry 
gangrene  and  death  of  the  young  bird  result.  This  condition 
has  been  produced  experimentally. 

GOUT  OF  FOWLS 

Gout  of  the  joints  is  an  inflannuation  of  the  fibrous  and 
ligamentous  parts  of  the  joints.  It  is  accompanied  by  an 
excess  of  uric  acid  and  deposits  of  urates  of  sodium  in  and 
around  the  joints. 

Gout  may  also  attack  the  internal  organs  and  cause  de- 
posits of  sodium  urates  in  them.  This  type  is  called  visceral 
gout. 

Gout  attacks  man  and  some  of  the  lower  animals  such  as 
fowls  and  dogs. 

The  histology  of  urate  deposits,  both  experimental  and 
gouty,  have  been  studied  by  Krause,  Rosenbach  and  Freud- 
weiler.  Their  results  all  indicate  that  uric  acid  and  urates 
excite  slight  inflammatory  reactions,  cause  a  slight  local  ne- 
crosis, and  seem  to  act  as  a  weak  tissue  poison.  HowTver, 
they  may  be  deposited  without  causing  necrosis. 

That  urates  mav  cause  necrosis  in  the  tissues  has  been  defi- 
nitely  established,  and  this  may  lead  to  connective  tissue 
formation  and  contraction. 

Gout  is  more  common  in  birds  force-fed  and  given  rich 
nitrogenous  diet  and  in  old  birds  where  the  eliminating  ac- 
tion of  the  kidneys  is  more  or  less  impaired.  Birds  normally 
excrete  large  quantities  of  uric  acid,  which  appears  on  the 
outer  surface  of  the  droppings  as  a  whitish  liquid  or  semi- 
liquid. 

It  would  appear  that  the  preponderance  in  the  blood  of 
substances  which  are  of  acid  reaction  favors  the  precipitation 
of  uric  acid. 

Uric  acid  is  converted  into  sodium  urate  by  the  salts  in  the 
blood  in  two  ways :  First,  by  breaking  down  of  the  nucleo- 
albumins  of  the  tissue  and  especially  perhaps  of  those  con- 
tained within  the  leukocytes;  and  second,  from  similar  sub- 
stances contained  in  the  food  (Greene). 

Excess  of  uric  salts  in  the  blood  may  be  produced  either 


192  POULTRY  DISEASES 

bv  increased  formation  of  these  substances  or  ])y  diminished 
excretion  of  them  or  by  failure  to  utilize  and  destroy  them  in 
the  metabolism  of  the  tissues. 

Hutyra  and  ^Marek  state  that  Kionka  and  Barnes  produced 
typical  gout  in  fowl  ])y  feeding  them  for  several  months  ex- 
clusively on  horse  flesh.  Kossa  points  out  that  gout  is  caused 
by  chronic  poisoning  by  oxalic  acid,  carbolic  acid,  corrosive 
sublimate,  aloin  and  acetone. 

If  the  ureters  of  the  bird  be  ligated,  gout  may  occur;  hence, 
it  is  argued  that  perverted  function  of  the  kidneys  or  ureters 
may  be  a  contributing  factor  in  the  production  of  gout.  Lack 
of  exercise  predisposes  to  goutj^  conditions.  ]\Iale  birds  are 
more  frecpienth^  attacked  than  females. 

In  visceral  gout  the  chalky  or  mortar-like  deposits  may  be 
observed  in  the  air  sacs,  pericardium,  peritoneum,  heart,  or 
liver. 

In  the  articular  form  the  joints  of  the  feet  are  more  often 
affected.  Birds  suffer  especially  in  the  tarsal,  metatarsal  and 
phalangeal  joints  and  at  times  in  the  joints  of  the  wings. 

In  birds  there  is,  in  the  early  stages,  extreme  tenderness 
as  manifested  by  the  bird  standing  on  one  limb  or  resting  on 
the  breast  and  moping  around,  staying  away  from  the  bal- 
ance of  the  flock.  There  is  a  limp  of  the  affected  limb.  At 
first  the  affected  limb  is  swollen,  soft,  hot  and  tender  and 
may  pit  on  pressure ;  later  the  parts  may  become  extremely 
hard.  The  enlargements  may  attain  the  size  of  an  English 
walnut  and  the  parts  may  undergo  necrosis.  When  necrosis 
occurs  there  may  be  discharged  a  granular  yellowish  grey 
material  similar  to  talc.  The  bones  may  become  deflected 
from  their  normal  direction  as  a  result  of  the  process.  The 
diagnostic  symptom  is  the  finding  of  deposits  of  sodium  urate 
in  the  lesions. 

The  study  as  a  basis  of  this  article  was  made  in  two  capons, 
one  a  five-vear-old  Barred  Plvmouth  Rock  and  the  other  a 
five-year-old  single  comb  Rhode  Island  Red.  These  birds  had 
been  allowed  to  run  at  large  and  did  not  wander  far  from 
the  barn,  where  there  was,  at  times,  an  abundance  of  grain 
and  especially  more  or  less  sprouting  grain. 

These  birds  were  quite  lame,  sitting  around  in  comfortable 
places  and  only  moving  when  necessary.  They  were  often 
noted  to  stand  alternatelv  on  one  foot  or  the  other  to  ease 
the  pain.  The  swellings  were  irregular  in  shape  and  hard. 
The  nodules  measured  three-quarters  of  an  inch  at  the  larg- 
est diameter.     The  mobility  of  these  joints  were  limited. 

Tn  these  birds  the  feather  coat  was  rather  rough ;  the  comb 
and  wattles  as  well  as  the  face  were  pale. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  ORGANS  OP  LOCOMOTION  193 

AVlieii  gout  assumes  a  chronic  type,  the  prognosis  is  un- 
favorable. When  ulcers  are  present  it  is  observed  that  they 
do  not  entirely  heal.  The  birds  finally  become  unable  to  move 
about  and  care  for  themselves,  become  emaciated,  exhausted 
and  die. 


SECTIOX  XIII 

DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES 

DIZZINESS— VERTIGO 

Affections  of  the  l)rain  are  comparatively  rare  in  birds. 
Vertig,"o  has  ])een  known  where  tlie  brain  is  congested,  es- 
pecially in  very  fat,  plethoric  birds.  Excessive  heat  in  hot 
summer  weather;  absorption  of  poisonous  substances  (toxins) 
from  the  intestinal  tract;  irritation  due  to  intestinal  worms; 
injury  to  the  head,  as  by  a  blow,  etc.,  are  the  chief  causes  of 
dizziness  in  birds. 

Vertigo  has  been  observed  in  baby  chicks.  The  l)irds  appear 
dizzy,  finally  fall  over  on  their  side  helpless  and  in  a  few 
minutes  may  recover  or  finally  may  die. 

Symptoms. — The  adult  bird  throws  its  head  upward,  back- 
ward, and  to  one  side.  It  may  walk  sidewise  or  baclavard, 
and  have  an  unsteady  walk — staggery.  The  bird  may  be 
drowsy,  and  even  have  epileptiform  symptoms. 

Treatment. — Place  the  affected  bird  in  cool,  well  ventilated, 
comfortable  quarters,  free  from  drafts,  and  for  the  adult  give 
thirty  grains  of  Epsom  salt,  dissolved  in  w^arm  w^ater.  Give 
also  two-grain  doses  strontium  bromid  every  hour.  Thorough 
purging  is  one  of  the  first  essentials. 

In  case  of  limber  neck  (due  to  eating  rotten  meat)  and 
prostration,  give  one-tifth  grain  strychnin  three  times  a  day. 
(See  page  22^9.) 

HEMORRHAGE  OF  THE  BRAIN 

This  condition  is  technically  called  apoplexy.     It  may   be 
due  to  over-straining,  as  in  egg-laying,  in  very  fat  birds.     In 
>ury  to  the  head  and  over-stimulating  food  are  also  causes. 

Symptoms. — The  hen  may  be  found  dead  on  the  nest.  The 
symptoms  are  of  short  duration:  the  attack  comes  on  sud- 
denly, as  the  hemorrhage  soon  presses  on  the  brain  structures 
so  tliat  the  function  of  that  part  stops  and  the  animal  is  seen 
to  stagger,  fall,  and  die  immediately. 

Postmortem  Fiucliugs. — Upon  opening  the  brain  cavity  and 
examining  the  brain,  there  will  be  found  hemorrhages  (clots) 
in  the  brain  substance. 

EPILEPSY 

In  the  attack  the  l)ird  emits  sharp  sounds,  makes  flopping 
movements  with  its  wings,  falls  on  its  side  or  back,  moves 


196  POULTRY  DISEASES 

its  feet  rapidly,  rolls  its  eyeballs,  l)en(ls  its  neck  round  to  one 
side,  opens  and  shuts  its  beak  alternately,  and  moves  the 
whole  body  to  and  fro. 

After  one  or  two  minutes  the  spasms  cea.se  and  the  bird 
gets  up,  staggers  and  may  at  first  support  itself  with  its  beak 
and  outstretched  wings  and  finally  falls  because  of  a  fresh 
attack  or  it  may  gradually  recover  from  the  first  attack  with- 
out any  immediate  renewal  of  the  spasms. 

Hemiplegia  sometimes  follows  as  a  sequel  of  this  disease. 

Epileptiform  attacks  are  sometimes  caused  by  internal  para- 
sites. 

Treatment  should  consist  of  a  physic.  During  the  attack 
the  bird  should  be  cared  for  to  prevent  its  injuring  itself. 

MYELITIS 

Myelitis  is  an  inflammation  of  the  spinal  marrow^  or  its 
membranes.  There  are  indications  of  a  deep  seated  burning 
pain.  It  is  accompanied  by  various  nervous  and  vascular  ir- 
regularities of  function. 

Myelitis  in  the  cervical  region  of  the  bird  has  been  ob- 
served and  is  noted  to  manifest  itself  by  paresis  and  hyperes- 
thesia of  the  wing,  lateral  flexion  of  the  neck  during  repose 
so  that  the  beak  may  be  directed  backwards.  During  feed- 
ing the  head  may  be  carried  in  a  normal  position. 

POLYNEURITIS 

Ohler  has  shown  that  ])irds  fed  on  a  diet  wholly  of  wheat 
bread  develop  a  polyneuritis  similar  to  polyneuritis  gallinarum 
as  produced  in  fowls  with  a  diet  of  polished  rice.  The  dis- 
ease made  its  appearance  in  from  twenty-one  to  eighty-two 
days,  with  an  average  of  about  forty  days. 

In  the  large  majority  of  the  fowls  the  first  symptoms  of 
paralysis  were  a  slight  unsteadiness,  together  with  evidence 
of  an  involvement  of  the  nerves  supplying  the  extensor  mus- 
cles of  the  legs,  manifested  by  a  high  step  and  a  tendency 
1o  bring  the  foot  down  with  a  flop.  In  many  fowls  there 
seems  to  be  difficulty  in  cocirdination  early  in  the  disease.  In 
such  cases  the  fowls  teeter  slightly  forward  as  if  trying  to 
balance  on  their  toes  and  walking  is  with  a  decided  ataxic 
gait.  As  the  disease  progressed  in  all  cases  walking  became 
more  and  more  difficult,  until  the  birds  could  only  squat  in 
the  cages,  and  this  condition  was  soon  followed  by  one  of 
complete  paralysis.  The  disease  usually  began  with  periph- 
eral paralysis  and  later  an  involvement  of  the  higher  nerve 
centers.  When  fowls  were  fed  on  white  bread  nuide  without 
yeast,  they  came  down  with  a  polyneuritis  somewhat  sooner 


DISEASES  OP  THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES      197 

than  wlieii  fed  with  ])i'ead  containing  yeast.  Ilolst  found  the 
same  to  hold  true  in  feeding  pigeons  witli  ship  biscuits.  When 
fowls  were  fed  on  whoh^  wheat  bread,  they  remained  perfectly 
well  for  as  long  as  seventy-five  days.  It  is  apparent  that 
whole  wheat  bread  contains  some  element,  or  elements,  lack- 
ing in  the  white  bread,  which  is  necessary  to  maintain  the 
in^oper  l)odily  metabolism.  Fowls  force-fed  came  down  fully 
as  soon  as  those  that  were  allow^ed  to  eat  at  will,  indicating 
that  it  is  not  a  matter  of  how  nuich  feed  is  taken,  but  its 
quality.  . 

Fowls  fed  on  whole  corn  remain  perfectly  well  for  a  period 
of  sixty-three  days,  but  when  they  are  fed  on  the  inside  of 
the  corn  kernel  they  come  down  with  the  disease  as  when 
fed  on  wheat  bread. 

Tests  were  run  to  determine  the  effects  of  a  starvation  diet. 
Two  fowds  were  started  on  normal  diet,  then  the  amount  was 
gradually  cut  down,  until  after  about  twenty-one  days  the 
birds  wtVc  receiving  nothing  but  water.  One  fowl  went  for 
thirty-eight  days  without  food  and  the  other  for  fifty-six 
days.  In  neither  fowl  was  there  a  typical  picture  of  paraly- 
sis ;  the  symptoms  presented  appeared  to  be  due  to  muscular 

weakness. 

Wellman  and  Bass  produced  polyneuritis  in  fowds  by  feed- 
ing in  a  like  manner,  sago,  boiled  wdiite  potato,  corn  starch, 
Avheat  flour,  corn  grits,  boiled  sw^eet  potato,  cream  of  wdieat, 
puffed  rice  and  macaroni. 

It  is  apparent  according  to  the  w^ork  of  Hoist  that  pigeons 
fed  on  biscuits  baked  of  rye  flour,  either  with  or  without 
yeast,  do  not  develop  polyneuritis,  w^hile  pigeons  fed  on  wheat 

bread  do. 

The  following  case  report  gives  the  clinical  picture : 

During  the  first  ten  days  the  fowl  ate  heartily  of  diet,  and  ap- 
peared at  all  times  active  and  well,  except  for  more  or  less  diarrhea. 
On  the  eleventh  day  the  fowl  began  to  refuse  feed  and  on  the  fifteenth 
dav  forced  feeding  commenced.  The  first  symptom  of  paralysis  was 
noted  on  the  twenty-second  day.  On  this  day  the  fowl  was  slightly 
unsteady  and  stood  teetering  forward  and  backward  on  its  toes; 
when  forced  to  walk  it  did  so  with  a  high  step  pushing  the  feet  well 
forward  as  if  trying  to  brush  something  from  in  front  of  it.  Three 
days  later  a  slight  head  tremor  was  noted,  and  the  bird  walked  with 
a  decidedly  staggering  gait,  but  did  not  fall.  Next  day  both  wings 
drooped,  it  walked  with  great  difficulty,  and  every  now  and  then  the 
joint  formed  by  the  tibia  and  the  metatarsus  seemed  to  give  way  and 
the  fowl  suddenly  assumed  a  squatting  position.  It  remained  in  the 
cage  squatted  most  of  the  time  on  the  flexed  tarsometatarsus,  with 
the  extremities  also  flexed.  On  the  following  day  the  bird  could  not 
stand.  The  comb  was  cyanotic,  there  was  convulsive  movements 
now  and  then  with  retraction  of  the  head.  Next  day  it  was  pros- 
trated.   The  duration  of  the  disease  was  six  days. 


198  POULTRY  DISEASES 

PARALYSIS  OF  THE  AUDITORY  NERVE  OF  THE  FOWL 

Anatomy  of  the  Parts 

It  may  be  well  first  to  give  the  origin  and  distribution  of 
the  auditory  nerve  before  taking  up  the  disease  of  the  same. 

In  the  fowl  the  facial  (seventh  pair  of  cranial  nerves)  and 
the  auditory  or  eighth  pair,  are  so  intimately  associated,  it 
appears  well  to  give  the  origin  and  distribution  of  ]:»oth  at 
the  same  time. 

The  facial  nerve  originates,  with  the  auditory,  from  the 
cerebellum.  It  divides  into  three  parts,  the  first  probably 
from  the  complex  ganglion  with  the  posterior  roots  of  the 
auditory.  This  root  belongs  to  the  somatic  sensory  group  of 
nerves.  From  this  same  group  originates  the  auditory  which 
spreads  out  into  the  cochlea  and  takes  the  impression  of  sound. 
This  nerve  is  short  and  thick,  and  at  the  point  where  it  loses 
its  medullary  covering  on  entering  the  cochlea  there  is  de- 
veloped a  ganglion.  This  ganglion  is  similar  to  the  spinal 
ganglion. 

The  second  part  originates  ])y  one  root  which  is  located 
medially  and  ventrally  from  the  deeper  ganglion  cells.  Some 
of  the  fibers  from  this  root  constitute  the  vestibular  branches 
and  accompany  the  auditory  and  supply  the  anterior  part  of 
the  ear  labyrinth  and  semicircular  canals.  The  larger  part  of 
the  fibers  of  this  trunk  make  up  the  intermediate  part  of  the 
facial.  The  geniculate  ganglion  is  formed  at  their  fusion. 
The  sympathetic  sphenopalatine  nerve  emerges  from  this  gan- 
glion, coming  out  of  the  aqueduct  of  Fallopius. 

The  third  part  is  called  the  portia  dura  and  is  the  main 
facialis.  It  is  located  opposite  the  auditorius  intermedins, 
its  roots  may  be  traced  to  the  complex  ganglion,  from  which 
they  take  a  ventral  direction. 

Paralysis  of  the  Cochlear  Nerve 

The  paralysis  of  the  cochlear  nerve,  the  true  organ  of  iiear- 
ing,  may  be  a  congenital  defect  and  has  been  observed  in  am- 
biotic  animals.  It  is  due  to  a  defective  condition  of  the  spinal 
ganglion  with  resulting  degeneration  of  the  organs  of  Corti. 
Paralysis  of  the  nerve  may  also  be  caused  ])y  inflammatory 
changes  in  the  internal  ear  or  intracranial  disease  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  medulla  oblongata.  It  has  been  observed 
as  a  symptom  in  coccidiosis  and  also  in  fowl  plague. 

Paralysis  of  the  Vestibular  Nerve 

This  condition  is  frequently  observed  in  l)irds.  It  is  often 
caused  })y  inflammation  of  the  middle  or  internal  ear.  It  has 
been    o])served    in    fowl    pest.      It    is    also   ])i'onght   a])Out   in 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BRAIN  AND  NERVES       199 


earies  of  the  petrous  temporal  bone.  Concussion  of  the  brain 
and  heinorrhcio:e  of  the  internal  ear  is  also  a  causative  fac- 
tor. Certain  disease  conditions  of  the  cerebellum  and  medulla 
oblongata  may  cause  an  interruption  in  the  comhictivity  of 
the  vestibular  nerve.  In  pigeons  it  is  o])served  in  contagious 
meningitis. 

The  symptoms  of  bilateral  disease  of  the  cochlear  nerve  are 
easily  recognized  owing  to  the  fact  that  there  is  complete  deaf- 
ness. If  it  is  unilateral  the  symptoms  may  be  so  meager  that 
its  presence  entirely  escapes  the  observation  of  the  owner. 

Unilateral  paralysis  of  the  vestibular  nerve  is  evidenced 
in  all  species  by  the  head  being  held  in  an  oblique  manner, 
the  diseased  side  being  held  lower.  The  head  may  be  held 
in  a  position  under  the 
front  part  of  the  body  with 
the  lower  part  of  the  head 
turned  back  towards  the 
sound  side.  This  turning 
of  the  head  may  be  slight 
or  45°  to  75°,  but  in  birds 
it  may  be  as  much  as  180°. 
or  even  more.  If  the  head 
be  carried  under  the  body 
the  dorsum  of  the  cranium 
may  touch  the  ground. 
There  is  frequently  a  hori- 
zontal rolling  of  the  eye- 
balls towards  the  sound 
side.  There  mav  be  diffi- 
culty  in  taking  food,  and 
in  birds  it  is  commonly 
quite  impossible.  If  the 
disease  is  bilateral  it  closely 
resembles  cerebellar  ataxia^ 
only  the  symptoms  are  limited  to  the  head  and  neck. 

If  the  paralysis  is  due  to  an  injury,  the  disease  as  a  rule 
is  not  permanent  and  the  symptoms  all  disappear  in  a  few 
days  or  weeks.  If  the  condition  is  due  to  pathological  changes 
in  the  auditory  nerve  or  nerves  the  symptoms  are  persistent, 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  prinuiry  cause.  The  bird 
may,  after  a  while,  die. 

In  traumatic  causes  the  bird  needs  to  be  kept  in  a  quiet 
place  free  from  annoyances,  and,  if  necessary,  artificial  feed- 
ing is  resorted  to.  If  there  has  been  an  injury  and  hemor- 
rhage takes  place  in  the  tissues,  surgical  interference  may 
be  indicated.     In  cases  in  pigeons  due  to  contagious  menin- 


FiG.  71.     Paralysis  of  the  Auditory  Nerve 
OF   A    Silver   Campine   Hex. 


200  POULTRY  DISEASES 

gitis  an  attempt  sliould  l)e  made  to  isolate  the  diseased  bird 
and  earry  out  thorough  disinfection.  Calomel  should  be  given 
to  the  bird  and  cold  water  packs  applied  to  the  head. 

Cases  of  Vestibular  Paralysis 

Figure  71  shows  a  picture  of  a  Silver  Campine  hen  which  was 
sent  to  the  laboratory.  This  hen  had  the  run  of  the  farm  with  the 
balance  of  the  flock.    She  was  about  two  years  old. 

There  was  nothing  in  the  history  of  the  case  to  indicate  whether 
the  hen  had  met  with  an  accident  or  had  a  diseased  condition  of  the 
auditory  nerve.  The  bird,  as  is  shown  in  the  cut,  held  her  head  un- 
der the  body  with  the  top  of  the  head  resting  on  the  floor.  A 
thorough  examination  of  the  external  auditory  canals  did  not  re- 
veal any  signs  of  violence  or  parasitism.  Eating  was  accomplished 
with  difficulty  and  the  bird  died  after  suffering  in  this  manner  for 
a  period  of  sixty  days. 

A  second  case  in  which  the  bird  showed  similar  symptoms  and  in 
which  examination  of  the  auditory  canals  and  skull  was  negative, 
after  a  period  of  five  weeks,  gradually  showed  signs  of  improvement 
and  finally  recovered. 


SKCTIOX  XIV 

BACTERIA     OF     THE     INTESTINAL     TRACT     OF 

CHICKENS 

The  ])acterial  flora  of  the  intestinal  traet  of  birds  has  been 
receiving  considerable  stndy  during  recent  years.  I'he  ali- 
mentary tract  of  man  and  animals  contains  many  niilli(ms  of 
bacteria,  of  many  varieties.  Manv  of  these  are  consianllv 
present  and  constitute  what  is  known  as  the  normal  intestinal 
flora.  In  the  newly-born  child  or  animal  the  intestinal  tract 
is  sterile,  that  is,  it  contains  no  germs,  but  as  soon  as  it  par- 
takes of  food  and  water  the  intestines  are  seeded  and  evcL- 
after  contain  bacteria  in  large  numbers.  The  same  ^an  be 
said  of  the  chick. 

Some  of  these  germs  are  not  harmful,  but  give  off  fer- 
ments similar  to  the  cells  of  the  accessory  glands  of  diges- 
tion; these  ferments  may  aid  in  splitting  up  foodstuffs  and 
in  preparing  it  for  absorption.  Ferments  of  this  kind  have 
been  called  organized  ferments,  but  we  have  now  learned 
that  such  ferments  do  not  in  any  way  differ  in  action  from 
those  secreted  by  the  stomach,  pancreas  or  intestinal  glands. 
It  is  their  ferments,  and  not  the  germs  themselves,  that  cause 
the  splitting  up  of  the  food  nutrients. 

Some  of  the  bacteria  are  at  times  injurious,  and  oftentimes 
pathogenic  organisms  gain  access  to  the  intestinal  tract  and 
may  produce  disease,  if  the  bird  is  susceptible.  There  are 
also,  at  times,  protozoa  present,  especially  those  belonging  to 
the  coccidia  group. 

The  following  organisms  have  been  found  in  the  normal 
mouth  and  pharynx  of  the  fowl:  Bacillus  suhtilis.  Bacillus 
coli  conymunis,  Bacillus  lactis  hulgaricus,  Bacillus  viscosus, 
Bacillus  cloacae,  Pneumococcus,  Streptococcus  pyogenes,  Sta- 
plnjlococcus  pyogenes  aureus.  Micrococcus  magnus.  Micrococ- 
cus tetragenes,  Pseiido  pyocyaneus.  Bacillus  procligiosus. 

The  following  germs  have  been  found  as  normal  inhabitants 
of  the  duodenum,  or  first  portion  of  the  intestines,  of  birds : 

Bacillus  mesentericus.  Bacillus  suhtilis.  Bacillus  ramosus, 
Bacillus  sereus.  Bacillus  asterosporus,  Bacillns  fusiformis. 
Bacillus  coli  communis,  Streptococcus  lacticus,  Bacillus  lactis 
aerogenes,  Bacillus  prodigiosus,  Sarcina  aurantiaca,  Sarcina 
lutea,  Sarcina  ventriculus.  Clathodrix  asteroides,  Micrococcus 
rosettaceus,  brown,  white,  and  green  molds,  coral  and  white 
yeasts,  Micrococcus  roseiis  and  Clamydothrix  ferrugenes. 


202  POULTRY  DISEASES 

In  the  third  portion  of  the  intestines,  or  ileum,  may  be 
found  green  and  white  molds,  Cladothrix  asteroides,  Bacillus 
cloacae,  Bacillus  ramosus,  Sarcina  lutea  and  Sarcina  aurau- 
tiaca,  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  alb  us  and  citreus,  Staphylo- 
coccus cereus  alhus.  Bacillus  fiuorescens  licjuefaciens,  Micro- 
coccus asterosporus,  Streptococcus  lacticus,  Bacillus  lactis 
aerogenes.  Bacillus  coli  comnmnis,  Bacillus  prodigiosus,  Bacil- 
lus mesentericus,  Bacillus  cereus,  Bacillus  megatherium,  Bacil- 
lus fusiformis,  Bacillus  suhtilis. 

Practically  the  same  microorganisms  are  to  be  found  in 
the  cecum.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  cloaca,  with  possi- 
l)ly  the  addition  of  the  Bacillus  aerogenes  capsulatus  and 
Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  intestinal  flora  is  prob- 
ably not  the  same  for  all  birds,  as  different  surroundings  or 
environment,  different  sources  of  food,  as  well  as  different 
food  and  water,  play  a  part  in  carrying  germs  to  the  intesti- 
nal tract. 


SECTIOX  XV 
THE  EGG 

COMPOSITION 

An  average-sized  hen  egg  weighs  about  two  ounces,  of 
wliiich  eleven  per  cent  is  shell,  thirty-two  per  cent  yolk,  and 
fifty-seven  per  cent  white.  The  principal  chemical  constitu- 
ents of  the  egg  are  as  follows:  Ash  (mineral  matter)  nine 
per  cent;  fat  (hydrocarbon)  nine  and  three-tenths  per  cent; 
proteids  (nitrogenous  matter)  eleven  and  nine-tenths  per 
cent ;  and  water,  sixty-five  and  five-tenths  per  cent. 

Composition  of  the  Egg  Shell 

Gadow  gives  the  composition  of  the  egg  shell  as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 

Calcium  carbonate  91.44 

Magnesium  carbonate  2.03 

Calcium  phosphate 70 

Organic  phosphate 4,92 

Water 73 

Loss  (or  traces  of  other  salts) 18 

Total 100.00 

ANIMAL  PARASITES  IN  EGGS 

Reports  have  been  made  that  worms  have  been  found  in 
eggs.  The  author  has  not  had  the  good  fortune  to  examine 
any  of  these  worms  for  the  purpose  of  classification,  but  it  is 
probable  that  the  Ascaris  iuffe.ra  or  Heferal-is  papillosa  and 
other  round  worms,  normally  inhabiting  the  intestines,  mav 
find  their  way  up  the  egg  canal  and  be  incorporated  with  the 
egg  as  it  is  formed.  By  referring  to  Fig.  2,  it  will  be  seen  that 
a  live  worm,  possessing  power  of  movement  as  these  worms 
do,  passing  into  the  cloaca  (16)  from  the  rectum  (15),  can 
pass  up  the  egg  canal  (23)  and  thus  be  incorporated  in  the 
albumen  of  the  egg,  as  it  is  formed  around  the  yolk.  These 
conditions  are  rare. 

BACTERIA  OF  EGGS 

Several  investigators  have,  of  recent  years,  devoted  much 
time  to  the  investigation  of  the  bacterial  flora  of  eggs.     It  is 


20i  POULTRY  DISEASES 

« 

needless  to  say  that  all  understand  that  the  spoiling  of  eggs 
is  due  to  the  multii)li('ation  of  bacteria  in  them,  when  the  egg 
is  brought  under  proper  teni})erature.  The  cold  storage  of 
eggs  holds  them  under  conditions  unfavorable  for  the  rapid 
growth  of  these  bacteria.  AVhen  eggs  are  kept  cold  the  bac- 
teria within  them  are  in  a  more  or  less  dormant  state  and 
hence  by  reason  of  this  retardation  of  germ  growth  the  eggs 
keep  longer. 

Eggs  can  be  successfully  desiccated  (dried)  and  such  i>ow- 
dered  product  is  on  the  market.  The  moisture  in  it  is  so  re- 
duced that  germs  do  not  grow  and,  like  any  other  dried  prod- 
uct, it  keeps  well.  This  desiccated  product  retains  the  quali- 
ties of  the  fresh  egg  for  a  long  time.  One  pound  represents 
about  three  and  one-half  pounds  of  raw  egg  or  an  amount 
ol)tained  from  thirty  eggs.  The  egg  contains  considerable  fat 
and  because  of  this  the  dried  product  gradually  undergoes  a 
change  at  warm  temperatures,  much  as  butter  does,  finally 
giving  off  a  rancid,  fishlike  odor. 

It  is  not  probable  that  the  yolk  or  ovum  becomes  infected 
wliile  it  is  being  formed  in  the  ovary,  unless  the  ovary,  from 
which  it  develops,  be  diseased.  It  has  been  shown  that  !)ircls 
that  have  had  white  diarrhea  while  chicks  and  recovered, 
grown  to  maturity,  and  commenced  laying,  have  diseased 
ovaries,  ovaries  which  harbor  the  Bacterimn  pullorum,  the 
cause,  or  at  least  one  of  the  causes,  of  white  diarrhea,  and 
this  germ  is  incorporated  within  the  yolk  of  the  egg.  Chicks 
which  hatch  from  such  infected  eggs  develop  white  diarihea 
soon  after  hatching.  This  is  an  important  means  o«f  spread- 
ing this  disease  and  one  before  which  sanitation  is  powerless. 

Ordinarily  the  internal  organs,  as  the  ovaries,  kidneys, 
spleen,  etc.,  are  sterile  unless  diseased,  as  just  stated.  How- 
ever, Conradi  maintains  that  he  has  found  bacteria  in  these 
supposedly  sterile  organs  in  seventy-two  cases  out  of  one 
hundred  sixty-two. 

The  germs  that  have  been  alluded  to  under  intestinal  flora 
of  chickens  can  easily  find  their  way  into  the  cloaca  and  up 
the  oviduct,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  2.  The  yolk  or  ovum  when 
fully  developed  in  tlie  ovary  is  delivered,  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, as  in  higher  animal  life,  into  the  first  ])ortion  of  the 
oviduct  (uterus),  which  at  its  free  extremity  is  rather  fun- 
nel shaped  and  is  called  the  ostium  infundibulum.  This  egg 
canal  which  can  be  likened  to  the  uterus  of  higher  animals 
is  about  eighteen  to  twenty  inches  long  and  is  lined  with 
tubular  glands  which  secrete  the  albumen,  and  in  the  pos- 
terior portion  the  shell.  This  material  is  formed  from  foods 
carried  by  the  blood,  which  is  very  abundant  in  these  walls. 


THE  EGG  205 

As  the  egg  traverses  the  cloaca  in  l)eing  passed  out  (layed) 
it  is  exposed  to  contamination  hy  microorganisms  which  may 
be  taken  up  into  the  oviduct  Avith  the  male  element  (sperma- 
tozoa) after  copulation.  Bacteria  are  not  so  common  in  non- 
fertilized  eggs  as  they  are  in  fertilized  eggs,  a  fact  that  sup- 
ports this  theory. 

]\Iany  of  the  organisms  found  in  eggs  are  nonmotile,  so 
that  they  must  find  theii"  way  up  this  canal  by  extension  by 
growth  or  be  carried  mechanically.  Among  the  bacteria  that 
have  been  found  in  eggs  are:  Micrococcus  nonliquefaciens, 
StapJnjJococcus  pyogenes  aureus  and  alhus.  Bacillus  prodigio- 
sus.  Bacillus  violacevs.  Bacillus  putridis,  Bacillus  mesentericus, 
Bacillus  fecalis  alcaligenes.  Bacillus  putriclus  nonliquefaciens, 
Streptococci,  Micrococcus  leteus,  Micrococcus  candicans,  Mi- 
crococcus ffavus  tardigradus. 

The  colon  bacillus  is  ever  present  in  the  intestinal  tract  of 
chickens  and  is  found  on  the  outer  shell,  yet  contamination 
of  the  egg  content  by  it  does  not  occur.  This  has  led  some 
to  think  that  there  may  be  a  substance  present  in  the  egg 
canal  bactericidal  for  this  germ  and  the  matter  is  being  in- 
vestigated at  present. 

Poppe  claims  that  among  those  germs  which  find  their  way 
through  the  pores  of  the  egg  shell  after  it  is  layed  is  the 
Bacillus  paraty pilosis,  the  cause  of  paratyphoid  in  man. 

BACTERIA  IN  FRESH  EGGS 

Rettger  of  Storr's  Agricultural  experiment  station  in  exam- 
ining a  total  of  1,894  yolks  from  fresh  eggs  in  the  months 
from  February  to  September  found  7.7  per  cent  contained 
germs  other  than  the  Bact.  pullorum  and  over  16  per  cent 
contained  the  Bact.  pullorum. 

A  total  of  three  years,  including  all  months,  and  a  total  of 
8,510  yolks  of  fresh  eggs,  9.5  per  cent  contained  bacteria,  not 
including  the  Bact.  pullorum.  Nearly  20  per  cent  contained 
the  Bact.  pullorum. 

Of  105  tested  with  the  fermentation  tube  for  B.  coli,  all 
gave  negative  results. 

Of  the  whites  of  582  eggs  examined,  only  1.2  per  cent  con- 
tained bacteria. 

Lansre  placed  esrsrs,  after  sterilizing  with  corrosive  sublimate 
and  ether,  in  bouillon  cultures  of  B.  coli,  B.  tynhosis,  B.  para- 
typhosis,  B.  enteritidis,  and  B.  botulinus.  The  B.  typhosis 
required  two  days  to  enter  the  white  and  three  days  to  pene- 
trate the  yolk  at  37°  C.  The  B.  coli  may  reach  the  white 
in  one  and  the  yolk  in  five  days. 

The  secretions  of  the  glands  of  the  mucous  lining  of  the 


206  POULTRY  DISEASES 

oviduct  have  some  l)aetericidal  action  as  well  as  the  egg  v.hite 

itself. 

Eggs  that  have  been  incubated  artificially  for  three  weeks 
remain  relatively  free  from  liacterial  decomposition,  pro- 
vided they  were  "fresh  and  clean  when  placed  in  the  incuba- 
tor. 


SECTION  XVI 


MALFORMATIONS 

]\Ialforinations  among  birds  are  occasionally  observed.  A 
complete  discussion  of  the  dozens  of  various  forms  of  mal-' 
formations  that  may  be  found  cannot  be  given  here  for  lack 
of  space,  but  a  few  facts  will  be  given. 

In  higher  animal  life,  including  man,  malformations  have 
been  attributed  to  the  following  causes : 

External  mechanical  influences,  such  as  falls,  blows,  or 
severe  shock  of  any  kind,  by  affecting  the  general  health  of 
the  pregnant  female,  may  have  power  to  arrest,  retard,  or 
otherwise  disturb  the  normal  development  of  the  embryo  or 
fetus. 

The  so-called  spontaneous  amputation,  in  utero,  by  a  coil 
of  the  umbilical  cord  finding  its  way  around  a  part  of  the 
fetus  and  causing 
pressure  and  am- 
putation, cannot 
hold  with  chickens 
nor  will  acute  and 
chronic  placentitis, 
causing  adhesions, 
hardly  hold  for 
birds. 

The  percentage 
0  f  malformations 
in  the  human  fam- 
ily is  one  to  three 
or  four  thousand 
births;  in  the  low- 
er animals  and 
birds  the  percent- 
age is  much  small- 
er. 

During  the  for- 
mation of  the  fetus 
an  arrest  of  devel- 
opment of  the  bud  which  forms  the  wmg  may  result  in  a  mal- 
formed wing;  the  same  can  be  said  of  any  other  part,  as  the 
leg,  beak,  etc. 

If  the  arrcDujcmoit  of  the  groups  of  cells  during  develop- 
ment does  not  follow  the  normal  type,  then  malformations,  as 


4 

■ 

'0L.      ' 

Fig.   72.     Monster  Chick   (dipygus  tetrabkachium.^ 

Showing   two  bodies,   four  legs,   fcur  wings   and   one 
head. 


208 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


atresia,  imperforate  anus,  or  other  natural  openings  may  re- 
sult; a])normal  position  of  viscera,  a  failure  of  the  closure  of 
the  abdominal  or  thoracic  plates  may  take  place. 

The  germ  or  em])ryo  is  first  developed  as  a  manifold  mcm- 
brnnous  expansion,  the  free  margins  of  which  incline  towards 
each  other,  and  eventually  meet  to  form  two  cavities.  A 
failure  to  meet  results  in  malformation.  Fusion  of  parts  may 
also  take  place. 

Those  malformations  in  which  there  are  supernumerary 
parts  or  duplications  of  almost  an  entire  body  are  sometimes 
called  composite  or  compound  malformations  and  monsters. 

Hermaphroditism  is  a  com- 
plete duplication  of  both  male 
and  female  genital  organs; 
i.  e.,  a  single  individual  pos- 
sessing both  male  and  female 
genital  organs.  Pseudo-her- 
maphroditism  is  a  condition 
in  which  the  duplication  is 
only  partial.  It  is  desirable 
that  more  scientific  observa- 
tions be  made  along  these 
lines,  in  birds,  and  recorded. 

The  double-yoked  eggs,  in 
cases  where  two  ova  have 
been  delivered  into  the  ovi- 
duct at  the  same  time,  and 
both  being  surrounded  by  al- 
bumen and  finally  one  shell, 
have  been  supposed  to  pro- 
duce double  monsters,  but 
there  is  a  scientific  record  in 
which  eighty  such  eggs  were 
incubated  (all  from  the  do- 
mestic fowl  J  and  in  each  sep- 
arate twins  were  produced, 
in  some  both  males,  in  others 
females,  and  in  others  one 
of  each  sex.  In  one  case  out 
single  chick   and  the  other  a 


Fig.    72,.      Polymelus    (natural   size). 
A.   the    two   supernumerary  legs. 


of  the  eighty  one  yolk  developed  a 
double  monster. 

Thompson  made  a  study  of  a  double  embryo  in  the  egg  of  a  goose, 
which  had  been  incubated  five  days.  This  study  showed  a  double 
primitive  trace  is  actually  formed  on  a  single  blastodermic  mem- 
brane proceeding  from  a  single  vitellus  and  vitelline  membrane. 
This  same  work  has  been  corroborated  by  others  so  fortunate  as  to 
find  these  monstrosities  in  early  stages  of  development. 

Comjjound  monsters  lu'oceed  from  single  germs  which  have  sub- 
sequently undergone  different  degrees  of  dichotomy.  They  are 
governed  in  their  development  by  certain  fixed  and  invariable  laws 
among  which  are  unity  of  sex,  homologous  fusion  and  bilateral 
symmetry.    In  each  case  there  is  single  sexuality. 

The  various  forms  of  duplex  development  are  determined  by  the 


MALFORMATIONS 


209 


extent  to  which  the  primitive  trace  is  cleft,  and  also  by  the  limita- 
tions of  the  dichotomy  to  the  cephalic  or  caudal  extremity  of  the 
neural  axis.  Either  or  both  extremities  may  become  bifid.  The  cepha- 
lic or  head  extremity  may  become  bifid  alone  and  a  double  head,  or 
still  further  bifid  and  the  posterior  extremities  single  or  the  pos- 
terior extremity  become  bifid  and  the  anterior  single. 

Figs.  72  and  73  illustrate  a  duplication  of  the  legs.  The  rudimen- 
tary legs  are  perfect,  but  not  so  well  developed  as  the  other  two. 
This  is  polymelus. 

UMBILICAL  HERNIA  OF  THE   BABY  CHICK 

We  have  examined  many  chicks  in  cases  where  they  have 
died  after  partly  pipping  out  of  the  shell.     The  shells  were 


^ 


Fig.   74.     Umbilical   Hernia  of   a   Baby    Chick. 
1,   portion   of  egg  sac  not  included;   2,  umbilical   ring. 


carefully  removed  and  an  examination,  in  many,  showed  a 
rupture  of  the  umbilicus  at  its  point  of  attachment.  At  this 
point  the  abdominal  wall  is  very  thin,  and  is  not  reinforced 
by  elastic  tissue,  as  in  (luadrupeds,  and  if  the  membranes 
become  very  dry  and  tout>h,  the  straining-  ))y  the  chick  in  its 
efforts  to  free  itself  may  prove  fatal.  Fig.  74  shows  a 
hernia  a.s  a  result  of  excessive  straining.  No.  1  is  the  ab- 
dominal yolk  sac  which  has  been  forced  thi'oua'h  tht^  umbilicus, 
Xo.  2. 


SECTION  XVII 

FRACTURES — WOUNDS — ANESTHESIA 

FRACTURES 

Fractures  or  broken  bones  among  birds  in  the  poultry 
3"ards  are  of  rather  common  occurrence,  especially  where 
birds  are  allowed  the  run  of  the  farm  or  ranch,  as  is  the  usual 
custom. 

REPAIR  OF  THE  FRACTURE  OF  BONES  OF  THE  DOMES- 
TIC  FOWL 

This  work  is  divided  into  three  groups,  as  follows :  First, 
the  structure  and  development  of  the  bones  of  the  domestic 
fowl;  second,  the  kinds  of  fractures  and  the  reparative  proc- 
esses; third,  means  of  control  of  the  bird  and  care  of  the 
fracture. 

I.    The  Structure  of  Bones 

In  the  gross  study  of  bones  we  find  that  in  the  limbs  as  the 
legs  and  wings  they  form  levers  which  have  to  sustain  weiglit 
of  the  body  and  confer  the  power  of  locomotion,  either  during 
walking,  running  or  flying.  The  femur,  tibia  and  humerus  are 
examples.  The  shaft  of  the  long  bone  is  narrowed  and  con- 
tracted, which  affords  greater  space  for  the  bellies  of  the 
muscles.  The  extremities  are  generally  somewhat  expanded 
for  greater  convenience  of  motor  connection,  for  the  purpose 
of  articulation  and  to  afford  a  bony  surface  for  muscular  at- 
tachment. Some  long  bones  are  slightly  curved,  thus  afford- 
ing greater  strength. 

Where  there  is  required  great  strength  and  at  the  same 
time  motion  it  is  divided  into  a  number  of  small  bones.  As 
an  example  we  have  the  patella  and  the  two  carpal  bones. 

Where  the  principal  requirement  is  that  of  extensive  pro- 
tection or  the  need  of  large  bony  surface  for  the  attachment 
of  muscles,  we  find  osseous  structures  expanded  into  flat  bony 
plates,  as  is  the  case  in  the  skull  and  pelvis. 

The  respiratory  apparatus  of  the  domestic  fowl  consists  of 
two  lungs,  which  occupy  the  upper  thoracic  region,  pushing 
out  between  the  ribs,  and  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  air  tubes 
and  air  sacs.  Some  of  the  bronchi  or  air  tubules  connnuni- 
cate  with  air  sacs  or  bladder-like  structures  located  at  the 
anterior  thoracic  region,  others  at  the  diaphragmatic  region. 


212  POrLTRY  DISEASES 

JNIany  of  the  bones  of  the  fowl,  as  the  head,  vertebrae  and 
humerus,  contain  air  cavities.  The  air  sacs  send  extensions 
into  these  cavities. 

Bones  of  fowls  nearly  always  develop  from  a  connective 
tissue  foundation.  The  inorganic  substance  of  the  bone  is 
compressed  in  or  between  the  fibers  of  the  connective  tissue, 
while  the  cells  of  the  latter  are  transformed  into  bone  cells. 
Between  fibers  are  calcified  bone  cells,  each  of  which  rests 
in  a  cavity  of  the  matrix,  called  lacuna. 

The  bone  cells  have  processes  that  anastomose  with  the 
processes  of  other  cells.  They  lie  in  special  canals  known  as 
canaliculi. 

The  histological  structure  of  the  bone  of  the  domestic  fowl 
is  similar  to  that  of  mammals,  with  the  exceptions  given 
above,  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  any  histology  for  further 
study. 

II.     Reparative  Processes  of  Bone 

A  fracture  of  bone  may  be  defined  as  a  sudden  solution  of 
continuity  in  a  bone.  The  cause  of  fractures  in  a  fowl  are: 
first,  injury  or  trauma,  receiving  a  blow  as  from  a  stick  or 
stone  or  bejng  stepped  upon  by  a  large  animal,  as  a  horse 
or  cow,  or  by  the  infliction  of  a  gun  shot  wound;  second, 
muscular  action.  Bones  are  most  resistant  to  traction,  next 
to  pressure  and  less  resistant  to  flexion  or  bending  and  least 
of  all  to  torsion.  External  violence  may  be  direct  or  indi- 
rect. In  fracture  from  direct  violence  the  bone  is  broken  at 
or  near  the  spot  where  violence  is  applied.  As  a  rule  the 
soft  structures  surrounding  the  fracture  are  more  or  less 
injured  and  more  serious  results  may  follow  than  in  frac- 
tures by  indirect  violence.  In  this  kind  of  fractures  the  bone 
may  be  comminuted  or  fissured  and  perhaps  driven  into  vital 
organs,  as  the  liver  or  lungs,  if  the  fracture  be  near  these 
regions,  or  into  the  brain  if  in  the  cranial  region. 

External  violence  is  \]u^  most  common  cause  of  fracture  in 
the  fowl.  The  most  common  bones  tlint  are  fractured  are 
those  of  the  legs  and  next  those  of  the  wings. 

Fractures  may  be  chissified  as  follows:  first,  simple  frac- 
tures  those  breaks  in  the  continuity  (vF  the  bone  where  the 

skin  is  not  broken;  second,  comixmnd.  also  called  open,  or 
complicated  fractures — those  where  the  ])reak  is  accompanied 
by  a  break  through  the  skin  ;ind  soft  i^arts  extending  to  the 

seat  of  fracture. 

A  series  of  studies  was  uindc  in  this  laboratory  of  repaired 
fractures  of  fowls  of  long  standing,  after  which  a  series  was 
made  of  the  nature  and  rapidity  of  repair  of  fractured  bones 


FRACTURES— WOUNDS— ANESTHESIA    213 

of  the  doiuestie  fowl.  The  ])irds  were  ehh)i'oforiiie(l  and  the 
bones  fraetured  and  set  while  the  birds  were  still  under  anes- 
thesia. The  metatarsus  and  ulna  were  selected.  The  appli- 
ance that  was  used  to  hold  the  bones  in  place  was  cotton,  one 
inch  cloth  bandage,  wooden  splints  and  glue.  At  the  end  of 
each  experiment  the  bird  was  chloroformed  and  the  bone 
removed.  After  a  physical  examination,  the  l)one  was  sec- 
tioned longitudinally,  ])hotographed  and  the  lesion  of  one-half 
cut  out  and  placed  in  ten  per  cent  hydrochloric  acid  solution 
for    forty-eight    hours    for    decalcification,    and    then   passed 


y^^m^ 


Fig.    75.     Sections    Through    Bones    at    Different    Stages    of    Fractures. 

1,   five    days   standing:    2   and   3,   tliirteen    days   standing.      Note   the   provisional 
plug  and   provisional   callus. 


through  three  chringes  of  absolute  alcohol:  then  alcohol  and 
ether  equal  parts;  then  embedded  in  celloidin  and  sectioned. 
The  sections  were  stained  in  hematoxylon  and  eosin  and  clari- 
fied in  oil  of  cedar  or  beechwood  creosote,  and  mounted  in 
balsam  for  microscopic  stud3\ 

In  a  study  of  a  fracture  of  the  metatarsus  of  a  single  comb  Khode 
Island  Red  of  eight  days'  standing,  the  following  picture  presented 
itself.  The  gross  specimen  showed  a  mottled  reddish  white  zone  in 
the  region  of  the  fracture  indicating  that  immediately  following  the 
fracture  there  was  an   extravasation  of  blood  which   had   collected 


214  POULTRY  DISEASES 

around  and  between  the  fragments  and  between  the  ends  of  the  com- 
pact portion  of  the  bone  and  had  also  invaded,  to  a  certain  extent, 
the  marrow  cavity  The  fluid  at  this  time  did  not  give  evidence  of 
advance  organization  and  was  rather  jelly-like  allowing  the  frac- 
tured ends  of  the  bone  to  fall  apart  by  slight  traction.  There  was 
present  the  initial  hyperemia  of  repair.  This  hyperemia  was  most 
marked  in  the  periosteum.  Leukocytes  had  invaded  this  part,  as 
shown  by  microscopic  examination.  Proliferative  changes  had  taken 
place  in  the  connective  tissue  and  in  fact  this  was  observed  in  cases 
of  only  forty-eight  hours'  standing.  The  most  active  cellular  multi- 
plication was  in  connection  with  the  fibrous  structure  of  the  perios- 
teum. This  forms  the  germinative  or  reparative  tissue  from  which 
arises  the  osteoblasts.  The  nature  of  the  new  formed  structure  was 
that  of  connective  tissue  and  is  plainly  shown  in  the  photomicro- 
graphs. The  first  picture  shows  the  commencement  of  this  organi- 
zation into  trabecular-like  arrangement  forming  the  periosteal  callus 
and  the  provisional  plug.  It  can  be  seen  that  this  had  been  formed 
and  poured  out  from  the  periosteum.  This  field  showed  many  fibro- 
blasts and  was  packed  with  osteoblasts  and  osteoclasts  and  in  still 
other  fields  of  the  trabeculae  a  homogeneous  matrix  with  formative 
bone  cells  in  their  lacunae.  The  repair  was  apparently  one  of  intra- 
membranous  bone  formation  with  islands  of  newly  formed  bone  at 
the  end  of  the  fifth  day. 

Another  study  of  a  fractured  metatarsus  of  thirteen  days'  standing 
was  in  a  one-year-old  single  comb  White  Leghorn  hen,  that  was  oi 
low  vitality  and  the  reparative  processes  were  more  tardy  than  in 
section  of  a  similar  case  in  which  the  bird  was  in  a  good  state  of 
health.  After  the  metatarsus  was  removed  it  could,  with  consider- 
able force,  be  made  to  spring,  which  was  not  the  case  with  the  latter 
specimen.  Both  birds  showed  the  reparative  processes  far  enough 
advanced  to  have  the  cast  removed  with  safety. 

From  these  two  studies  it  is  rather  indicative  that  repair  in  the 
bone  of  the  domestic  fowl  is  quite  rapid  and  that  two  weeks  is  ample 
time  to  allow  the  bandage  or  cast  to  remain  on.  The  illustrations, 
both  photographic  and  photomicrographic,  show  the  provisional, 
intermediary  calluses  and  the  provisional  plug. 

III.     The   Treatment  of   Fractures  and   Care   of  the   Bird 

In  simple  or  so-called  subcutaneous  fracture  of  bones  the 
fragments  of  the  bone  should  be  placed  in  perfect  apposi- 
tion. The  normal  shape  of  the  bone  should  be  restored  as  far 
as  possible.  The  loose  arrangement  of  the  muscles  in  the 
fowls  makes  this  an  easy  task. 

The  next  step  is  to  apply  an  apparatus  holding  the  parts 
firmly  in  place  wliile  the  reparative  processes  are  being  ac- 
complished. \n  applying  the  apparatus,  circulation  must 
not  be  interfered  with  and  nerves  must  be  safeguarded.  After 
the  setting  is  complete  the  ])ird  nuist  be  provided  with  a 
clean  coop  and  a  grassy  run  where  other  l)irds  cannot  inter- 
fere. Good  food  and  water  should  be  provided  and  an  occa 
sional  examination  made  to  determine  if  all  is  well  with  the 
bone  undergoing  repair. 

If  the  fracture  is  on  a  feathered  part,  the  feathers  that  are 


FRACTURES— WOUNDS— ANESTHESIA    215 

in  the  region  to  be  manipulated  should  be  removed.  Next 
apph^  a  thin  layer  of  cotton,  carefully  holding  the  fractured 
parts  in  the  proper  position ;  then  apply  about  three  thin, 
narrow  splints  of  wood  of  proper  length  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  cannot  chafe  the  leg  and  do  injury  to  the  skin. 
Next  applj"  a  one-inch  cotton  bandage,  at  the  same  time  satu- 
rating it  with  glue.  In  a  few  hours  the  liquid  glue  will  be- 
come hard  and  the  parts  will  be  firmly  held  in  position. 

At  the  end  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  days,  carefully  remoye 
the  bandage.  Confine  the  bird  for  a  few  days  longer  and 
then  allow  it  to  run  in  its  accustomed  quarters. 

As  to  feed,  for  the  first  two  or  three  days  after  injury  giye 

easily  digested  food,  such  as  bread  soaked  in  milk  or  wet 
mash.  Later  some  grain  may  be  fed,  but  only  two  light  feeds 
should  be  giyen  while  the  bird  is  in  confinement.  Pure,  clean 
water  should  be  kept  before  the  bird  at  all  times. 

WOUNDS 

Birds  possess  a  high  immunity  to  pyogenic  infection  (the 
germs  that  ordinarily  infect  the  wounds  of  animals)  ;  and 
wounds,  whether  accidental  or  surgical,  unless  yery  serious, 
heal  with  great  rapidity.  The  degree  of  tolerance  of  infec- 
tion that  the  peritoneum  of  birds  possesses  is  probably  not 
equalled  by  the  peritoneum  of  any  other  domestic  animal. 
For  example,  birds  rarely  die  from  infection  after  caponiz- 
ing.  Death  when  it  occurs  as  a  result  of  this  operation  is 
ordinarily  due  to  hemorrhage.  ]\Ian  and  animals  (except  the 
dog)  suryiye  abdominal  operations  only  when  done  under 
aseptic  precautions. 

Wounds  should  be  cleansed  with  antiseptics  as  in  mam- 
mals. Full  strength  iodin  fayors  healing  and  is  an  excellent 
antiseptic.  This  is  to  be  applied  after  the  wound  has  been 
cleansed  with  water. 

ANESTHESIA  AND   RESTRAINT  OF  THE  FOWL 

Chloroform  (Squibbs),  may  be  administered  by  means  of  the 
carton  a  one-fourth-pound  bottle  is  packed  in.  A  small  hole 
is  cut  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  to  admit  air  and  a  small 
pledget  of  cotton  placed  in  the  box  to  absorb  the  chloroform. 

The  hen  is  yery  susceptible  to  chloroform,  quickly  going 
under  its  influence  and  quickly  coming  out  again.  Care 
needs  to  be  exercised  lest  too  much  be  giyen  and  the  bird  die 
from  an  overdose.  In  administering  the  chloroform  the  head 
of  the  bird  is  first  thrust  into  the  box.     The  bird  usually 


216 


POULTEY  DISEASES 


struggles  very  little  and  is  soon  completely  under  its  influ- 
ence. The  cover  is  then  removed  or  held  one  or  more  inches 
from  the  nostrils  as  indicated  by  appearance  of  the  bird.  If 
an  overdose  be  given,  open  the  mouth  and  resort  to  artificial 
respiration   as  with  other   animals;  many  are  thus  revived. 


l-"lc;.     l(i.        POILIKV     OPKRATING     TaULIC. 


Note  is  made  of  rcspii'atioiis  and  eye  rellexes  as  in  anes- 
thetizing other  animals. 

After  the  limbs  arc  entirely  relaxed  an  assistant  holds  the 
bird  on  its  back  or  it  may  be  tied  to  tlie  operating  tal)le. 

A  poultry  operating  table  has  l)een  designed  by  the  writer. 
This  table^  ccmsists  of  a  top  (a)  two  feet  wide  and 
thirty  inches  long.  This  tal)le  is  ])rovidcd  with  four- 
inch' cross-pieces  as  shown  in  the  cut   (c)   which  are  located 


FRACTURES— WOUNDS— ANESTHESIA         217 

about  half  way  from  the  top  to  the  ground.  These  cross- 
pieces  are  provided  with  two  awning  hooks  on  either  side. 
Hok^s  are  bored  throii^rh  the  top  at  suitabh'  locations.  The 
loop  of  the  string  is  inni  through  the  hole  on  its  respective 
side  and  over  the  legs  or  base  of  the  wings  (h)  and  the  legs 
and  wings  drawn  down  snugly  to  the  top  and  the  free  por- 
tions of  the  string  wrapped  around  the  hook  and  given  a  half 
hitch. 

INJURY  TO  THE  STERNUM 

If  chicks  are  allowed  to  roost  on  small  limbs  of  trees  or 
sharp  poles  before  the  breastbone  becomes  sufficiently  ossified 


Fig.  11.     Injury  to  Sternum,  a  Result  of  Roosting  on  Some  Sharp 
Object  \N  hile  Quite  Immature. 

there  is  likely  to  be  a  dent  or  curvature  of  the  free  margin. 
Fig.  77  illustrates  this  kind  of  an  injury.  The  dressed  car- 
cass from  such  a  bird  would  bring  at  least  two  cents  less  per 
pound  on  the  large  city  markets  than  if  the  breast  was  straight 
and  presented  a  pleasing  appearance. 

CURVATURE   OF   THE   SPINE 

Eggs  should  lie  on  their  sides  in  the  incubator.     If  allowed 
to   stand   on   end   in    the   last    days   of   incubation   there   is 


218 


POULTRY  DISEASES 


likely  to  be  some  deformity.     Curvatures  of  the  spine  have 
been  noted  to  appear  suddenly  in  young,  developing  birds. 

Injury  to  the  Spine. — Often,  large  animals,  step  upon  or 
knock  over  fowls  in  walking.  This  may  result  in  broken  ])ones, 
internal  hemorrhage  as  a  result  of  crushing,  and  injury  to  the 
spine  or  other  parts. 

GANGRENE 

There  are  two  kinds  of  gangrene,  moist  and  dry.  Death  of 
a  part  en  masse  constitutes  gangrene  and  death  cell  by  cell  on 

a  surface  constitutes  ulcer- 
ation. If  the  part  which 
dies  has  poured  out  in  it 
much  serum,  there  is  likely 
to  result  infection  and  ne- 
crosis with  gas  formation. 
This  gas  is  very  offensive. 
If  the  part  is  poorly  sup- 
plied with  blood  and  there 
is  no  serum  secreted  there 
may  be  a  dry  gangrene ; 
that  is,  the  part  mummi- 
fies, does  not  give  off  an 
offensive  odor  and  becomes 
dry  and  hard.  Dry  gan- 
grene is  likely  to  occur  in 
dependent  parts,  as  in  the 
illustration,  in  the  foot  of 
a  turkey. 

FROZEN   COMBS 

The  degree  of  cold  at 
which  the  wattles  and  comb 
freeze  depends  upon  many 
factors.  The  humidity  in 
the  house  and  the  physical 
condition  of  the  bird  and 
its  heart  action  are  the 
most  important  factors.  A 
weak  heart  means  a  slug- 
gisli  circulation  and  the 
more  sluggishly  the  blood  flows  the  slower  it  passes  througli 
the  dependent  parts  and  tlie  quicker  the  comb  freezes. 

Wattles  usually  freeze  sooner  than  combs  because  when  tlie 
l)ird  drinks  it  usually  gets  its  wattles  wet. 

Birds  in  open  front  houses  can  stand  lower  temperatures 


Fig.  78.  Gangrene  of  the  Foot  of  a 
Turkey. 

Commenced  with  fluctuating  abscesses  be- 
tween the  toes  which  when  lanced  gave  off 
an  offensive  cdor  and  seemed  somewhat 
gaseous.  Later  the  parts  became  in  a  state 
of  dry  gangrene.  A  smear  from  the  pus 
showed  many  eosinophiles,  lymphocytes  and 
polymorph  olcukocytes. 


FKACTUKES— WOUNDS— AxNESTIIESIA         219 

than  Avhen  the  house  is  tightly  closed,  because  the  more  free 
circulation  of  air  allows  the  watery  vapor  from  the  lungs  of 
the  birds  to  disseminate  more  rapidly  and  humidity  is  les- 
sened. 

When  wattles  and  coud)  are  frozen,  remove  the  bird  to  a 
warmer  room  but  not  one  heated  by  a  stove.  Apply  carbolized 
vaselin  twice  a  day. 

BROKEN  BEAK 

The  beak  often  becomes  broken  through  fighting  or  some 
other  violence.  Such  a  fowl  needs  attention.  It  may  starve 
through  its  inability  to  pick  up  feed  or  its  beak  may  grow 
deformed. 

The  bird  should  be  given  feed  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can 
easily  pick  it  up,  or  the  new  and  developing  horny  material 
may  become  injured.  Mash,  both  wet  and  dry,  given  in  a  cup. 
is  recommended.  The  cup  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  so 
nearly  empty  that  the  bird  strikes  the  bottom  with  its  beak. 

Often  chicks  are  hatched  with  crossed  beaks  making  the 
act  of  prehension  a  difficult  one. 


SECTION  XVIII 

CASTRATION  OF  THE  BIRD    (CAPONIZING) 

There  are  great  possibilities  in  the  more  extended  practice 
of  capon  production.  The  fact  that  there  is  a  growing  de- 
mand, making  their  value  as  a  meat  product  superior  to  that 
of  the  cock  or  cockerel,  and  the  fact  that  they  bring  a])out 
thirty  cents  a  pound  while  the  uncastrated  bird  brings  only 
about  fifteen  cents,  together  with  the  fact  that  they  become 
very  much  larger,  makes  this  phase  of  poultry  husbandry  a 
productive  and  remunerative  one. 

The  male  bird  after  the  removal  of  his  reproductive  organs 
loses  his  masculine  appearance,  becomes  sluggish  and  gains 
weight  rapidly  as  a  result  of  his  inactivity. 

From  the  loss  of  that  internal  secretion  manufactured  in 
the  testes  we  note  that  there  is  the  same  difference  which  is 
observed  in  other  animals  under  the  same  treatment.  The 
development  of  the  gelding  as  compared  to  the  horse  and  of 
the  barrow^  as  compared  to  the  boar,  are  some  concrete  ex- 
amples. 

The  same  improvement  in  meat  is  noted  in  the  castrated  or 
caponized  bird  as  in  the  steer  over  the  meat  of  the  bull  or  the 
meat  of  the  barrow  compared  with  that  of  the  boar,  hence 
capon  raising  is  highly  desirable  and  if  properly  managed  is 
a  profitable  undertaking. 

A  capon  of  the  Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte  or  Rhode  Island 
Red  breed  should  weigh  fully  seven  or  eight  pounds  when 
eight  months  of  age. 

Light  capons  are  produced  from  the  Rocks,  Wyandottes 
and  Reds  while  the  heavy  capons  are  produced  from  the 
Brahmas  and  Cochins. 

The  cockerel  should  be  caponized  when  he  weighs  from  one 
to  one  and  one-half  pounds,  which  will  probably  be  about  the 
eighth  to  the  tenth  week. 

If  the  birds  are  allowed  to  become  too  old  before  operation 
the  testes  are  found  to  l)e  very  large,  the  removal  of  which 
may  prove  fatal  to  the  bii-d.  If  the  birds  are  hatched  from 
]\rarch  to  IMay  the  operation  could  be  performed  in  the  months 
of  June  to  September  and  with  proper  feeding  and  care  these 
birds  should  then  be  ready  to  market  from  December  to 
INfarch. 

The  equipment  needed  to  perform  this  operation  is  a  table 


222  POULTRY  DISEASES 

provided  with  means  of  confining  the  bird  on  it  and  instru- 
ments consisting  of  a  knife  or  scalpel  with  which  to  make 
the  incision  or  cut  through  the  abdominal  wall,  a  hook  for 
tearing  through  the  peritoneum  or  lining  of  the  abdominal 
cavity,  air  sac  walls  and  at  times  through  the  mesentery  and 
a  spreader  for  holding  the  wound  open  while  the  removal 
of  the  testes  is  accomplished. 

The  intestines  may  be  pushed  to  one  side  by  aid  of  the  end 
of  a  scalpel. 

An  improvised  table  may  be  made  by  taking  a  barrel, 
using  two  cords  and  two  weights  of  sufficient  size  to  hold  the 
bird  down,  usually  about  the  size  of  a  half  brick.  The  cords 
are  doubled  and  one  is  looped  around  the  legs,  the  other 
around  the  base  of  the  Avings  and  a  half  brick  tied  to  the  free 
ends  as  shown  in  Fig.  79. 

A  poultry  operating  table  designed  by  the  writer  consists 
of  a  top  two  feet  wide  and  thirty  inches  long.  This  table  is 
provided  with  four-inch  cross  pieces,  as  sho^vn,  (Fig.  76) 
which  are  located  about  half  way  from  the  top  to  the  ground 
and  provided  with  two  awning  hooks  on  either  side.  Holes 
are  bored  through  the  top  at  suitable  locations.  The  loop  of 
each  cord  is  run  through  the  hole  on  its  respective  side  and 
over  the  lesrs  or  base  of  the  wings  and  the  legs  and  wings 
drawn  snugly  down  to  the  top  and  the  free  end  of  the  cord 
wraDped  around  the  hook  and  given  a  half  hitch. 

If  the  bird  or  birds  are  to  be  operated  on  in  the  forenoon, 
no  feed  should  be  given  on  the  previous  day.  It  is  also  well 
to  withhold  water  as  an  abundance  of  water  causes  more 
hemon^hage.  owing  to  the  increased  amount  of  liquid  in  the 
body  tissues.  It  is  rather  difficult  to  accurately  and  satisfac- 
torily operate  when  the  intestines  are  gorged  with  feed. 

The  operation  is  best  performed  in  the  bright  sunlight  un- 
less the  operator  is  provided  Avith  a  head  reflector. 

The  instruments  should  be  kept  in  a  shallow  pan  of  anti- 
septic, as  creolin.  or  better,  formaldohyd  solution.  A  small 
amount  of  absoi-bent  cotton  should  also  be  at  hand..  After  the 
bird  is  confined  pluck  a  few  feathers  over  the  field  of  oper- 
ation (between  the  last  two  ribs).  It  is  well  to  place  a  small 
chunk  of  ice  in  the  pan  of  antiseptic  and  use  the  ice  Avatei* 
in  sponging  the  field  of  operation.  The  cold  water  thus  acts 
as  an  antiseptic  as  well  as  causing  n  contraction  of  the  capil- 
laries of  the  region  and  less  hemorrhage  will  result. 

Wlien  rendy  to  mnko  the  incision  ])ull  the  skin  over  so  thnt 
nfter  the  incision  is  mnde  and  the  skin  released  the  wound 
into  the  abdominnl  cavity  will  be  closed.  In  mnkintjr  the  in- 
cision Ihrough  the  skin  the  bird  will  sti'uggle  very  litlle.    The 


CASTRATION  OF  THE  BIRD 


223 


knife  or  scalpel  should  be  very  sharp  and  the  incision  made 
quickly  to  minimize  pain.  The  upper  point  of  the  incision 
should  be  about  one-half  inch  from  the  center  of  the  backbone 
or  vertebrae.  The  incision  should  be  about  one  inch  long.  As 
a  nerve,  artery  and  vein  pass  along  the  posterior  border  of 
each  rib,  it  is  necessary  not  to  cut  close  to  the  posterior  border 
but  make  the  incision  close  to  the  anterior  border  of  the 
last  rib.  •'  i 

A  second  incision  is  now  made  in  the  same  wound,  this  time 
cutting  through  the  abdominal  muscles.  Care  must  be  exer- 
cised not  to  cut  too  deep  and  injure  the  internal  organs.  If 
the  peritoneum  is  not  cut  this  can  be  broken  through  by  aid 


ir 


Fig.    79.      Top    of    Barrel  As   An   Operating    Table. 


of  the  hook  and  insert  the  spreaders.  Now  tear  through  the 
walls  of  the  air  sac  and  push  the  intestines  to  one  side  and 
the  uppermost  testis  will  be  in  plain  view.  The  testis  will 
appear  bean-shaped,  about  one-half  inch  long  and  yellowish- 
white  in  color.  It  lies  close  to  the  body  of  the  vertebrae  and 
large  abdominal  blood  vessels,  being  attached  by  connective 
tissue.  If  it  is  the  desire  to  remove  both  testes  through  the 
one  opening  it  is  necessary  to  tear  through  the  mesentery  of 
web-like  membrane  supporting  the  viscera,  care  being  taken 
not  to  make  the  opening  too  close  to  its  attachment  to  the 
vertebrae  or  fatal  hemorrhage  may  take  place  as  a  result  of 
runturine  these  delicate  vessels. 

If  the  opening  has  been  properly  made  the  lower  testis  will 


224  POULTRY  DISEASES 

be  in  plain  view.  Always  remove  the  lower  one  first  as,  if 
the  upper  one  be  removed  first,  some  hemorrhage  may  take 
place  that  will  make  it  very  hard  to  tind  the  lower  one  later. 
For  beginners  it  is  better  to  operate  from  both  sides,  each 
time  removing  the  upper  one. 

The  testicular  tissue  is  very  soft  and  it  is  necessary  to  use 
great  care  to  remove  all  of  the  tissue.  If  it  is  crushed  it  will 
be  very  difficult  to  successfully  remove  it  so  that  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  operation  be  done  with  skill.  If  care  is  not 
used  often  the  end  of  a  testis  will  break  off  and  this  part 
remaining  makes  a  "slip."  This  small  particle  will  furnish 
some  internal  secretion  and  the  bird  can  be  regarded  neither 
as  a  cockerel  nor  as  a  capon.  Slips  are  undesirable.  The  acci- 
dents may  be  as  follows :  on  account  of  the  testes  lying  close 
to  the  vertebrae  in  close  proximity  to  the  abdominal  aorta  and 
other  large  vessels  and  the  capsule  of  the  testis  being  attached 
to  them,  too  much  traction  or  improperly  applying  the  tractors 
may  result  in  rupture  of  the  vessel  and  fatal  hemorrhage  occur 
at  once.  If  the  aorta  is  ruptured  there  wdll  be  noted  a  hissing 
sound  and  the  bird  becomes  pale  in  the  face  and  comb  and 
immediately  collapses.  In  this  case  cut  off  the  head  and  the 
bird  can  be  used  for  food.  If  the  bird  is  allowed  to  struggle 
after  the  operation  a  large  vessel  already  injured  by  the  oper- 
ation may  rupture  and  fatal  hemorrhage  result. 

After  the  operation  if  the  incision  has  been  properly  made 
no  suture  is  necessary,  but  if  the  opening  in  the  abdominal 
wall  be  large  it  is  well  to  take  one  or  two  sutures  with  clean, 
sterile  cotton  or  silk  thread. 

After  the  operation  is  completed  remove  the  bird  as  care- 
fully as  possible  and  quietly  place  in  a  clean  coop  or  run  bed- 
ded down  with  clean  straw^  Do  not  allow-  them  in  coops  or 
inclosures  where  they  can  jump  upon  boxes,  perches  or  fly, 
as  they  must  be  kept  dowTi  on  the  floor  for  a  fe"\v  days. 

Supply  the  birds  with  clean,  fresh  water  and  give  them 
ground  feed  mixed  with  milk  as  soon  as  they  are  placed  in 
their  runs.  They  apparently  do  not  suffer  any  inconvenience 
from  the  operation  and  wdll  eat  heartly  immediately  after. 

On  the  third  day  examine  each  bird  to  make  sure  there  are 
no  ''wind  puffs"  or  emphysematous-  conditions,  that  is,  air 
worked  under  the  sldn  from  the  edge  of  the  wound  or  incision. 
If  wind  puffs  or  emphysema  is  present  puncture  with  clean, 
sterile,  sharp  knife  and  allows  the  air  to  escape.  Birds  have 
a  great  resistance  against  the  common  germs  of  Avound  infec- 
tion, as  staphylococci  and  streptococci  and  fatalities  from  this 
cause  are  very  rare,  if  at  all. 

The  wound  should  be  entirely  healed  in  three  weeks'  time. 


CASTRATIOX  OF  THE  BIRD 


225 


Fig".  80  shows  a  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  capon  and  a  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  cock.  Note  difference  in  head  and  general 
appearance  between  the  capon  and  the  cock.  Capons  are 
usually  marketed  at  about  ten  months  of  age. 

OVARIECTOMY  OF  THE  PULLET 

An  unsexed  (spayed)  pullet  is  called  a  poulard.  Spayed 
pullets  make  more  rapid  growth  without  the  handicap  of  egg 
production,  at  a  later  stage,  and  the  meat  is  of  improved 
quality  and  flavor.     The  spayed  pullet  takes  on  some  of  the 


Fig.  80.     1,  capon;  2,  cock, 

appearance  of  a  cockerel.     The  poulard,  like  the  capon,  be- 
comes an  outcast  and  is  never  known  to  cackle. 

The  pullets  are  usually  operated  upon  at  about  the  same 
age  as  in  caponizing  the  cockerel  and  usually  in  the  late 
spring  or  early  summer.  The  pullets  are  prepared  in  the 
same  manner  as  cockerels  for  caponizing.  The  incision  is 
made  in  a  similar  manner  as  in  the  cockerel  and  the  unde- 
veloped e^^  cluster  is  found  in  the  pullet  in  a  similar  location 
to  that  of  the  testicles  in  the  cockerel.  With  a  pair  of  artery 
forceps  grasp  the  undeveloped  oviduct,  which  will  be  found 
to  be  about  the  size  of  a  broom  straw,  and  remove  about  one 
inch  of  this  and  the  ovary.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut 
or  rupture  any  of  the  lare^e  abdominal  blood  vessels  lying 
just  ])ack  of  the  ovary  and  against  the  vertebrae  (a  similar 
precaution  as  in  caponizing) .    The  removal  of  a  section  of  the 


226  POULTRY  DISEASES 

oviduct  and  ovary  prevents  the  further  development  of  the 
egg  canal  and  functionating  of  the  cells  of  the  canal  and  the 
formation  of  eggs.  Pullets  that  have  begun  to  develop  eggs 
cannot  be  successfully  operated  upon. 

The  after  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  capons. 


SECTION  XIX 
FOODS  POISONOUS  TO  FOWLS 

THE  ROSE  CHAFER 
(Macrodactylus  Subspinosus  Fab.) 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  when  the  grapes  are  in  bloom, 
large  numbers  of  the  common  rose-chafers  (rose  bugs)  often 
appear  to  feed  upon  the  blossoms  and  later  attacking  the 
young  and  developing  fruit  and  leaves  of  the  plant.  The 
beetle  is  about  one-third  inch  long,  of  a  light  brown  color 
and  is  covered  by  numerous  lighter  hairs.  It  is  provided  with 
long,  spiny  legs.  This  bug  may  also  be  found  on  roses,  from 
which  its  common  name  is  derived.  It  may  also  be  found  on 
other  shrubs  and  upon  apple,  plum,  cherry  and  peach  trees. 
When  numerous  and  its  preferable  food  scarce,  it  may  attack 
different  grasses  and  grains. 

The  bug  passes  through  the  four  stages,  namely :  ova,  larva, 
pupa  and  adult. 

Lamson  has  shown  that  when  large  numbers  are  eaten  by 
small  chicks  death  may  occur  from  their  poisonous  effects  in 
from  nine  to  twenty-four  hours.  It  was  found  that  fifteen 
to  twenty  rose  chafers  were  sufficient  to  kill  chicks  seven  days 
old  in  seven  days;  twenty-five  to  forty-five  proved  fatal  to 
chicks  twenty-one  days  old.  Chicks  over  ten  weeks  old  did 
not  die  from  their  effects. 

The  symptoms  usually  appear  an  hour  after  the  bird  eats 
a  large  quantity  of  these  bugs.  The  first  symptoms  noted 
are  those  of  a  dozing  attitude,  the  bird  becomes  Aveak,  and 
finally  prostrate  and  is  unable  to  w^alk.  Some  may  recover 
from  the  poison.  Occasionally  convulsions  are  noted  in  the 
dying  chick.  The  poison  appears  to  be  a  neuro-toxin.  Post 
mortem  does  not  reveal  any  lesions. 

Prophylactic  treatment  consists  of  keeping  the  young  chicks 
away  from  parts  of  the  premises  that  are  infested  by  these 

bugs. 

ARSENICAL  POISONING 

Arsenical  poisoning  may  occur  from  the  birds  drinking 
sprav  mixtures  containing  paris  green  or  other  arsenical  com- 
pounds, from  eating  rat  poison,  etc.  Cases  have  been  brought 
to  our  attention  where  birds  had  been  poisoned  by  eating 
grasshoppers.     The  grasshoppers  had  been  given  arsenic  in 


228  POULTRY  DISEASES 

bran,  and  the  birds,  devouring  large  numbers  of  them,  became 
ill,  and  many  of  them  died. 

Symptoms. — Loss  of  appetite,  black  comb,  dullness,  sitting, 
moping  and  unsteady  gait,  increasing  weakness,  and  death. 
Judging  from  the  effect  of  poisonous  doses  of  arsenic  on  high- 
er animals,  the  poisoned  birds  must  have  been  in  considerable 
pain,  but  they  did  not  show  it;  birds  do  not  manifest  pain 
as  other  animals  do. 

Autopsy. — The  liver  was  normal,  except  that  it  was  a  trifle 
dark  in  color.  There  were  no  noticeable  changes  in  the  other 
abdominal  organs,  except  the  intestinal  tract.  Upon  opening 
the  intestines  there  were  noted  patches  of  hemorrhage  and 
areas  of  congestion  and  inflammation. 

Treatment. — This  is  scarcely  worth  while.  Demulcent 
drinks,  as  water  in  which  slippery  elm  bark  has  been  soaked, 
or  even  milk,  are  indicated,  after  a  full  dose  of  castor  oil. 

SALT  POISONING 

Poisoning  among  chickens  and  turkeys  from  eating  common 
salt  or  drinking  brine  is  quite  common  and  the  losses  from  it 
are  large.  It  may  occur  from  eating  salt  pork,  or  fish,  or  from 
drinking  the  brine  left  from  freezing  ice  cream,  and  in  many 
other  ways.  The  symptoms  and  treatment  vary  but  little  from 
arsenical  and  other  poisons. 

Dr.  Geo.  H.  Glover,  Colorado,  reports  a  case  in  which  a  lady  in 
baking  a  cake  made  a  mistake  and  used  common  table  salt  instead 
of  sugar.  After  the  cake  was  baked  and  the  mistake  discovered  the 
young  housewife  concluded  to  feed  it  to  her  nice  flock  of  chickens, 
consisting  of  twenty-three  hens  and  one  rooster.  All  the  birds  ex- 
cept the  rooster  died. 

It  has  been  determined  that  twenty-five  grains  of  salt  per 
pound  of  live  weight  is  sufficient  to  produce  death  in  birds. 

OTHER  MINERAL  POISONS 

Saltpeter  poisoning,  from  eating  fertilizer;  phosphorus  poi- 
soning, from  eating  rat  poison ;  lead  and  zinc  poisoning,  from 
eating  paint,  and  copper  poisoning,  from  driking  bordeaux 
mixture,  have  been  described;  all  are  infrequent. 

PTOMAIN  POISONING 

Limber  neck  is  one  of  those  convenient  generic  terms  which 
poultrymen  sometimes  apply  to  any  ailment  in  which  the  bird 
is  too  sick  to  hold  up  its  head.  It  is  a  very  prominent  symp- 
tom in  all  forms  of  ptomain  poisoning. 

Cause. — Ptomain  poisoning  may  be  due  to  eating  any  kind 


FOODS  POISONOUS  TO  FOWLS  229 

of  food  in  which  putrefaction  has  set  in,  but  is  usually  the 
result  of  eating  decaying  meat  or  tisli. 

Because  of  the  more  favorable  conditions  for  the  rapid 
putrefactiton  of  meat  in  very  hot  weather,  ptomain  poisoning 
occurs  chietly  in  mid-summer,  and  on  farms  w'here  the  fowls 
have  an  extended  range,  including  patches  of  high  weeds  that 
effectually  conceal  dead  animals  from  the  caretaker,  until  the 
loss  of  a  large  portion  of  the  tiock  compels  cutting  weeds  and 
a  diligent  search  for  the  carcass. 

The  beginning  of  ptomain  poisoning  in  a  flock  is  usually 
something  like  this :  During  very  hot  weather  a  bird  dies  in 
the  tall  weeds,  it  may  be  from  disease  or  from  violence,  and 
in  three  or  four  days  its  carcass  is  filled  wdth  maggots  and 
in  an  advanced  stage  of  decomposition;  it  is  found  by  the 
other  birds  and  devoured,  with  the  consequent  death  of  many 
of  them,  some  of  them  dying  in  out  of  the  w^ay  places  and 
remaining  undiscovered  by  the  keeper,  and  in  turn  poisoning 
others,  and  so  on. 

Oftentimes  the  keeper  is  responsible  for  the  beginning  of 
the  trouble  by  thoughtlessly  throwing  some  small  animal 
which  he  has  killed  (opossum,  w^easel,  rat,  etc.)  where  the 
fowis  find  it.  If  the  w^eather  conditions  are  favorable  to  rapid 
decomposition,  ptomain  poisoning  in  the  flock  wall  result  and 
the  "vermin"  dead  will  destroy  more  birds  than  ten  of  its 
kind  would  destroy  during  life. 

Maggots  are  usually  found  in  the  crops  of  birds  dying  from 
eating  putrid  flesh,  and  if  the  poultryman  holds  autopsies  on 
the  dead  birds,  he  is  quite  apt  to  conclude  that  the  maggots 
have  killed  them.     Such  is  not  the  case. 

Treatment. — Give  a  tablespoonful  of  castor  oil  and  one- 
fifth  grain  doses  of  sulphate  of  strychnin,  the  latter  every 
four  to  six  hours. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  to  determine  the  exact 
dosage  of  strychnin  for  an  average-sized  hen.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  dose  should  be  from  one-sixth  to  one-fifth  of  a 
grain  three  times  a  day.  The  author  has  given  one  grain  re- 
peatedly without  ill  effect,  but  when  given  in  solution  and  on 
an  empty  crop  it  killed  the  bird. 

BOTULISM 
(Limber  Neck) 

Dickson  has  recently  reported  the  results  of  several  outbreaks 
of  botulism  among  persons  and  the  same  condition  among  fowls 
where  they  had  eaten  some  of  the  same  kind  of  meat.  In  one 
case  fifty  fowls  were  affected  after  eating  home-canned  corn  which 
had  caused  the  death  of  a  woman  who  had  tasted  it.  In  another 
case  betw^een  fifty  and  one  hundred  fowls  became  paralyzed  and 


230  POULTRY  DISEASES 

died  at  the  same  time  that  a  woman  who  cared  for  them  had  died 
of  "bulbar  paralysis."  Eight  fowls,  in  another  case,  showed  the 
same  symptoms  and  died  after  eating  home-canned  string  beans 
which  had  caused  the  death  of  a  woman  w^ho  had  tasted  them.  And 
in  still  another  case  seven  fowls  died  after  eating  home-canned 
apricots  which  had  also  caused  the  death  of  five  people. 

In  all  cases  in  human  and  fowls  the  symptoms  and  the  course 
of  intoxication  w^ere  the  same  as  those  of  botulism  and  in  the 
histologic  examination  of  one  case,  after  autopsy,  showed  the  typical 
thrombosis  and  hemorrhages  which  have  been  shown  to  be  char- 
acteristic of  the  condition.  The  organism  recovered  from  the  fowls 
were  identical  in  morphological  and  cultural  characteristics  to  the 
Bacillus  botuUnus.  The  toxin  from  these  cultures  produced  typical 
symptoms  when  fed  to  other  fowls.  The  birds  become  dull,  inactive, 
refuse  to  eat,  remain  quiet;  their  feathers  are  ruffled,  and  the 
birds  gradually  become  weak.  This  is  manifested  in  the  legs,  wings 
and  finally  in  the  neck,  so  that  they  are  unable  to  stand:  drop 
the  wings;  the  neck  is  limber,  the  beak  rests  on  the  floor  and 
finally  prostration  results.  Death  usually  occurs  in  less  than 
twenty-four  hours  after  feeding.  It  has  ^^een  found  that  the  Bacillus 
hotulinus  may  develop  in  decaying  vegetables  so  that  limber  neck 
due  to  this  organism  may  be  obtained  from  thi^  source  as  well  as 
decaying  meat. 

CORN  COCKLE  POISONING 

Chickens  eating  large  quantities  of  corn  cockle,  in  ground 
form,  incorporated  in  their  feed  in  the  form  of  mash,  have 
been  poisoned. 

The  seed  contains  a  poison,  sapotoxin,  which  causes  a  severe 
inflammation  of  the  entire  digestive  tract,  including  the  crop. 
Great  prostration  and  death  follow. 


SECTION 

POULTRY  REMEDIES 

With  the  development  of  veterinary  medicine  there  has 
come  a  knowledge  of  drugs  and  their  applica))ility  to  diseases 
of  the  domestic  fowl.  The  author  has  devoted  much  time  and 
thought,  the  past  few  years,  in  rational  medication  of  fowls 
and  has  worked  out  a  dosage  based  on  the  physiological  tests 
of  the  drugs  upon  healthy  fowls  and  also  the  application  in 
disease. 

The  following  brief  discussion  of  poultry  materia  medica 
and  its  therapeutic  application  is  thought  best  in  this  volume. 

In  medicating  birds  it  will  be  well  either  to  give  the  drug 
by  the  mouth  in  capsule  or  in  tablet  form,  since  in  a  large 
number  of  cases  the  liquids  administered  as  a  drench  find 
their  way  down  into  the  trachea  and  bad  results  follow. 
Liquids  may  be  mixed  with  mash  or  soaked  in  bread  in  cases 
w^here  the  fowl  has  not  completely  lost  its  appetite  or  w^here 
it  does  not  object  to  the  taste. 

The  larynx  of  the  fowl  is  not  provided  with  an  epiglottis 
and,  in  struggling  birds,  stands  more  or  less  open. 

Birds  require  a  comparatively  larger  dosage  to  obtain  the 
full  physiological  results  than  do  mammals.  A  large  amount 
of  unsatisfactory  medication  of  fowls  in  the  past  has  come 
about  through  the  lack  of  rational  medication. 

Poultry  Materia  Medica 

ALOIN 

Source — A  neutral  principle  obtained  from  aloes. 
Properties — Small  acicular  crystals,  in  color  yellow  to  yellowish 
brown;   odorless  and  bitter  taste. 
Use — Cathartic. 
Indication — Constipation. 
Dose — For  adult  fowl,  1  to  2  grains. 

AMMONIUM    CARBONATE    (SMELLING   SALTS) 

Source— A  mixture  of  ammonium  chlorid  or  sulphate,  and  cal- 
cium carbonate,  is  sublimed  and  resublimed. 

Properties — White,  hard,  translucent,  striated  masses,  having  a 
strong  ammoniacal  odor  and  a  sharp  salty  taste. 

Action — A  heart  and  respiratory  stimulant. 

Indications — Acute  bronchitis,  pneumonia  or  in   colds. 

Dose — For  an  adult  fowl,  20  grains  given  in  capsule. 


232  POULTRY  DISEASES 

ARECA  NUT  (Betel  nut) 

Source — From  the  seed  which  resembles  nutmeg  in  shape  and 
color. 

Properties — A   brownish   powder. 

Action — Destroys   intestinal   parasites. 

Indications — Infestation  of  intestines  with  worms,  and  acts  as 
a  cathartic. 

Dose — For  adult  fowl,  5  to  10  grains,  given  in  wet  mash. 

ARGENTI    NITRAS   FUSUS   (Lunar  caustic) 

Source — Melted  silver  nitrate,  3  parts,  and  potassium  nitrate,  6 
parts,  cast  in  suitable  moulds. 

Properties — White,  hard,  solid  pencils  which  appear  finely  gran- 
ular at  a  broken  end. 

Action — A  caustic. 

Indications — The  pencil  lunar  caustic  may  be  used  to  lightly  burn 
ulcers  in  the  mouth  or  head  as  in  roup  or  sorehead. 

BARBADOES  ALOES 

Source — The  dried  or  inspissated  juice  of  the  Aloe  vera. 
Properties — A  hard  mass,  orange  brown  and  opaque.     Odor,  saf- 
ron-like  and  bitter  taste. 
Action — A  cathartic. 
I  nd  ications — Constipation. 
Dose — For  adult  fowl,  10  to  20  grains. 

BELLADONNA   FLUID   EXTRACT    (Deadly   Nightshade) 

Source — An  extract  of  the  leaves  of  Atropia  belladonna. 

Properties — Blackish-brown  liquid  of  characteristc  odor. 

Preparations — Extract;   fluid  extract  and  tincture. 

Action — A  stimulant.  Lessens  mucous  secretions.  Small  doses 
do  not  affect  respiration  but  large  doses  make  breathing  quicker 
and  deeper. 

Indications — Acute  inflammation  of  the  air  passages  as  bronchi 
and  lungs. 

Dose — To  adult  hen,  five  drops,  repeated  every  three  hours.  May 
be  dropped  in  mouth  by  aid  of  medicine  dropper. 

CARBO  LIGNI  (Wood  Charcoal) 

Source — Soft  wood  is  charred  by  piling  it  in  a  heap,  igniting,  and 
covering  it  with  sand  and  dirt  to  prevent  rapid  combustion. 

Properties — A  black,  odorless  and  tasteless  powder  or  bits,  free 
from  gritty  matter. 

Action  and  Indications — It  is  indicated  in  indigestion,  chronic 
gastritis,  and  intestinal  catarrh  and  diarrhea. 

How  Given — May  be  kept  in  compartment  of  dry  mash  hopper 
where  the  birds  have  access  to  it.  Use  large  size  pieces  for  adult 
fowls  and  chick  size  for  smaller  ones. 

CASTOR   OIL 

Source — A  fixed  oil  expressed  from  the  castor  oil  bean. 

Properties — A  pale,  yellowish  and  almost  odorless,  transparent 
viscid  fluid  and  possessing  an  offensive  taste. 

Use — A  cathartic. 

Indications — Constipation. 

Dose — One  tablespoonful  to  each  four  fowls.  May  be  given  in 
wet  mash. 


POULTRY  MATERIA  MEDICA  233 

CHLOROFORM 

Source — Alcohol  and  water  are  heated  in  a  still  to  37.7°  C,  when 
chlorinated  lime  is  added  and  chloroform  is   evolved. 

Properties— A  heavy,  clean,  colorless,  mobile  and  diffusible  liquid 
of  a  characteristic  ethereal  odor,  and  a  burning  sweetish  taste. 

Action — Anesthetic. 

Use — It  is  used  as  an  anesthetic  in  preparing  birds  for  operation. 
Chloroform  and  ether  are  an  excellent  combination  for  anesthetic 
purposes. 

COAL-TAR    DISINFECTANT    DIPS    (Standardized) 

Source — Coal  tar  distillation  products,  the  active  principles  of 
which  are  cresols  and  hydrocarbons. 

Properties— They  are  a  rather  thick,  black  tarry  liquid  which 
turns  the  water  a  milky  color,  due  to  the  soapy  emulsion  that 
results   upon   the  addition   of  the   water. 

Use — A  destroyer  of  germs  and  parasites. 

How  Used — If  the  product  so  standardized  has  a  coefficiency  of 
5,  then  a  two  per  cent  solution  in  water  (one  ounce  or  two  table- 
spoonfuls  to  each  two  quarts  of  water)  should  be  used  for  spray- 
ing purposes  for  parasites  and  germs. 

CONVALLARIA  (Fluid  Extract)    (Lily  of  the  Valley) 

Source — An  extract  of  the  plant. 
Preparations — Extract,   fluid  extract  and  tincture. 
Action  and   Indications — Similar  to  digitalis. 
Dose — For  adult  fowl,  ten  to  twenty  drops. 

CREOLIN 

Source — Obtained  from  soft  coal  by  dry  distillation,  its  composi- 
tion is  very  complex.  It  is  said  to  contain  cresol  and  higher  homo- 
iogues  of  phenol. 

Properties — ^A  dark-brown  syrupy,  alkaline  liquid  of  a  tarry  taste 
and  odor. 

Action — A  powerful  disinfectant,  antiseptic  and  parasiticide. 

Use — As  a  spray  for  poultry  houses  and  equipment  use  one  to 
five  ounces  to  each  gallon  of  water, 

DIGITALIS   (Fluid   Extract)    (Fox  Glove) 

Source — From  the  leaves  of  digitalis. 
Preparations — Extract,  fluid  extract  and  tincture. 
Action — It  strengthens  the  heart  beat. 

Indications — It  has  a  tendency  to  correct  the  rapid,  weak,  irregu- 
lar pulse. 

Dose — For  adult  hen  ten  to  twenty  drops. 

ETHER    (Sulphuric   Ether) 

Source — Obtained  by  distillation  of  alcohol  with  sulphuric  acid. 

Properties — A  transparent,  colorless,  mobile  liquid,  having  a 
characteristic  odor  and  a  burning,  sweetish  taste. 

Action — To  produce  anesthesia. 

Use — It  is  used  as  an  anesthetic  in  preparing  for  operations  on 
birds. 

EUCALYPTUS,    OIL    OF 

Source — A  volatile  oil  distilled  from  the  leaves  of  the  eucalyptus 
tree. 


234  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Properties — A  colorless  or  faintly  yellowish  liquid.  It  has  a 
characteristic  aromatic  odor,  and  a  pungent,  spicy  and  cooling 
taste. 

Action — It  is  an  antiseptic  and  disinfectant,  being  three  times 
as  effective  as  carbolic  acid. 

Indications — Catarrhal  conditions  of  the  nasal  mucous  mem- 
branes, and  mucous  membranes  of  trachea  and  bronchi. 

Use — As  a  steam  inhalation  or  as  a  spray  or  injection  in  catarrh 
and  roup  combined  with  other  drugs,  as  follows: 

Oil  of  eucalyptus 20  drops 

Oil  of  thyme 1  dram 

Menthol    10  grains 

Oil    petrol 2  ounces 

Mix  and  inject  into  nasal  passage. 

FERROUS  SULPHATE   (Copperas,  green  vitriol) 

Source — Iron  wire  is  dissolved  by  boiling  in  diluted  sulphuric 
acid. 

Properties — Large,  pale,  bluish  green,  monoclinic  prisms,  with- 
out odor  and  having  a  salty  taste.  Changes  to  a  fine  powder  on 
being  exposed  to  air. 

Action — Externally  it  is  an  astringent  and  stimulant. 

Indications — In  a  solution  of  one  ounce  to  one  gallon  of  water 
for  wounds  of  any  kind  in  the  fowl. 

FORMALDEHYD    (Formic  aldehyd) 

Source — Obtained  by  partial  combustion  of  wood  alcohol,  with- 
out ignition,  by  evaporation  of  the  spirit  in  contact  with  a  hot, 
platinized,  asbestos  plate. 

Properties — A  pungent  gas.  Sold  in  aqueous  solution  (40  per 
cent  gas  in  water).     It  is  very  volatile. 

Uses — A  strong  disinfectant.  Used  in  about  the  same  dilution 
as  lysol  for  disinfecting  purposes. 

GENTIAN,    POWDERED 

Source — Obtained  from  the  gentian  roots. 

Properties — A  yellowish  brown  powder  possessing  a  bitter  taste. 
Action — Improves  the  appetite  and  stimulates  digestion. 
Indications — Indigestion,  loss  of  appetite  and  malnutrition. 
Dose — Same  as  for  ginger,  which  see. 

GINGER,    POWDERED    (Zingiber) 

Source — From  the  roots  of  the  Zingiber  officinale. 
Properties — A  yellowish-brown  powder  with  bitter  taste. 
Action — A  bitter  tonic. 

Indication — Indigestion,  loss  of  appetite,  malnutrition. 
Use — Combined  for  tonic  with  other  drugs,  as  follows: 

Powdered    ginger 2  ounces 

Powdered    gentian 2  ounces 

Powdered  nux  vomica 2  ounces 

Mix  one  teaspoonful  to  each  twelve  fowls.  Given  twice  daily  in 
wet  mash. 

GLYCERIN 

Source — A  liquid  obtained  by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  or 
animal  fats  or  fixed  oils. 

Properties — A  clear,  colorless   liquid   of  a  thick,   syrupy  consist- 


POULTRY  MATERIA  IMEDICA  235 

ency,  oily  to  the  touch,  odorless,  very  sweet  and  slightly  warm  to 
the  taste. 

Action — Its  affinity  for  water  causes  it  to  keep  moist  the  surface 
to  which  it  is  applied. 

Indication — Inflammation  or  injury  of  the  mouth,  pip,  stomatitis. 

HYDROCHLORIC   ACID    (Muriatic  acid) 

Source — From  a  distillation  of  sulphuric  acid,  sodium  chlorid  and 
water.    The  resulting  gas  is  passed  into  distilled  water. 

Properties — A  colorless,  fuming  liquid  of  pungent  odor,  and  an 
intensely  acid  taste. 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  (Dilute) 

Made  by  taking  100  parts  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  219 
parts  distilled  water. 

Action — It  aids  digestion  by  stimulating  the  formation  of  secretin 
in  the  stomach  and  intestines  and  excites  the  activity  of  all  the 
glands  giving  rise  to  the  secretions  concerned  with  digestive  ac- 
tivity. 

In  concentrated  form  is  caustic. 

Indication — Indigestion. 

Dose — One  tablespoonful  to  each  gallon  of  drinking  water. 

LINSEED   OIL 

Source — A  fixed  oil  expressed  from  linseed  or  flaxseed. 
Properties — ^A  yellowish,  oily  liquid,  peculiar  odor  and  bland  taste. 
Use — A  cathartic. 
Indication — Constipation. 

Dose — One  tablespoonful  to  each  six  fowls.  May  be  given  in  wet 
mash.     Raw  oil  must  be  used. 

LYSOL 

Source — From  that  part  of  tar  oil  which  boils  between  190°  and 
200°  C,  by  dissolving  in  fat  and  saponifying  in  alcohol. 

Properties — A  clear,  brown,  oily  liquid  of  a  feeble  creosote-like 
odor. 

Action — Destroys  germs  and  parasites. 

Use — One-half  to  two  per  cent  solution  in  water  to  disinfect  water 
or  feed  containers  and  to  spray  houses. 

MAGNESIUM    SULPHATE    (Epsom   Salts) 

Source — It  is  obtained  from  native  dolomite,  a  double  carbonate 
of  magnesium  and  calcium. 

Properties — Small,  colorless,  rhombic  prisms,  without  odor,  and 
having  a  cooling,  saline  and  bitter  taste.  Slowly  becomes  a  fine 
powder  in  dry  air. 

Action — A  hydrogogue  cathartic.     A  feeble  diuretic. 

Indications — Constipation. 

Dose — For  adult  as  a  mild  laxative,  one  tablespoonful  to  each 
twelve  fowls.  Best  given  in  solution  in  water  and  this  mixed  with 
dry  mash.  One  teaspoonful  given  by  the  mouth  in  solution  will 
produce  action  in  about  four  hours. 

MENTHOL    (Peppermint   Camphor) 

Source — Obtained  from  the  official  oil  of  peppermint. 
Properties — Colorless,  acicular  or  prismatic  crystals.    It  possesses 
a  strong,  pure  odor  of  peppermint. 


236  POULTRY  DISEASES 

Action — Allays  irritation. 

Indication — Catarrh  of  the  head. 

Use — Same  as  oil  eucalyptus,  which  see. 

MERCURIC  CHLORID,  CORROSIVE  (Corrosive  Sublimate) 

Source — A  heated  mixture  of  mercuric  sulphate  20  parts,  sodium 
chlorid  16  parts,  manganese  dioxid  1  part. 

Properties — Heavy,  colorless,  rhombic  crystals,  odorless,  and  hav- 
ing an  acrid  or  persistent  metallic  taste.     Permanent  in  air. 

Action — A  severe  caustic. 

Indications — May  be  used  in  contagious  bowel  diseases  in  fowls 
in  drinking  water.  To  each  gallon  of  water  add  6  grains  mercuric 
bichlorid  and  3  grains  citric  acid.  It  may  be  used  in  a  solution  of 
one,  to  one-thousand,  as  a  disinfectant. 

IVIERCURIC  CHLORID   (Mild)    (Calomel) 

Source — Heat  mercurous  sulphate  and  sodium  chlorid.  Calomel 
sublimes. 

Properties — A  white,  impalpable  powder;  odorless  and  tasteless, 
permanent  in  the  air.     Insoluble  in  water. 

Action — A  cathartic. 

Dose — For  adult  fowl,  3  to  5  grains. 

NAPHTHALENE  (Naphtalln) 

Source — A  hydrocarbon  obtained  from  coal  tar  by  distillation  be- 
tween 356°  F.  and  482°  F.  The  impure  naphtalin  resulting  is  treated 
with  sulphuric  acid  and  sodium  hydroxid,  and  is  further  purified  by 
distillation  with  steam,  and  then  by  a  mixture  with  strong  sulphuric 
acid  and  finally  by  distillation. 

Properties — Colorless,  shining,  transparent  laminae,  having  a 
strong  characteristic  odor  resembling  that  of  coal  tar,  and  a  burn- 
ing aromatic  taste.    It  is  slowly  volatilized  on  exposure  to  air. 

Action — An  excellent  destroyer  of  parasites. 

Uses — As  a  powder  in  nests  to  destroy  lice.  Dissolved  in  kero- 
sene (from  5  to  10  per  cent)  to  saturate  perches  to  kill  mites.  Five 
per  cent  in  vaselin  as  an  ointment  in  scaly  legs.  This  ointment 
gives  good  results  in  sore  head. 

MUX  VOMICA  (Powdered) 

Source — From  the  seed  of  the  Nucis  vomicae. 

Indications — Indigestion,  paralysis,  loss  of  appetite. 

Action — Powdered  nux  vomica  is  a  bitter  tonic,  increasing  the  ap- 
petite, gastric  secretion,  and  motion.     A  nerve  stimulant. 

Dose — For  adult  fowl,  ten  to  twenty  grains,  repeated  three  times 
a  day.  May  be  given  in  capsule  or  doughball.  As  a  tonic,  one-half 
ounce  in  mash  to  each  12  hens.  Twelve  "stroke  measure"  teaspoon- 
fuls  of  nux  vomica  make  one  ounce. 

PETROL  OIL 

A  neutral  thick  oil  used  as  a  vehicle  in  which  to  mix  liquid  prep- 
arations. 

PETROLATUM    (Vaselin,  cosmolene) 

Source — A  mixture  of  hydrocarbons,  chiefly  of  the  marsh  gas 
series,  obtained  by  distilling  off  the  higher  and  more  volatile  por- 
tions from  petroleum  and  purifying  the  residue  when  it  has  the 
desired  consistency. 


POULTRY  MATERIA  :MEDICA  237 

Properties — A  colorless  or  more  or  less  yellowish,  oily  trans- 
parent liquid,  without  odor  or  taste;  or  giving  off  when  heated,  a 
faint  odor  of  petroleum. 

Use — As  a  vehicle  for  other  drugs  in  the  preparation  of  ointments. 

PHENOL   (Carbolic  Acid) 

Source — Obtained  from  crude  carbolic  acid  by  agitation  with 
caustic  soda,  heating  to  338°  F.  and  adding  hydrochloric  acid;  then 
by  agitation  with  sodium  chlorid,  digestion  with  calcium  chlorid 
and  distillation  at  a  temperature  between  336°  and  374°  F.  and 
finally  by  crystallization,  phenol  results. 

Properties — Colorless,  interlaced  or  separate,  needle-shaped  crys- 
tals, or  a  white  crystalline  mass,  sometimes  acquiring  a  reddish  tint. 
It  has  a  characteristic  and  somewhat  aromatic  odor  and  when  it  is 
greatly  diluted  with  water  has  a  sweetish  taste.  It  goes  into  solu- 
tion with  a  very  small  amount  of  water. 

Action — An  antiseptic,  and  in  five  per  cent  solutions  it  is  a  para- 
siticide. 

Use — As  an  intestinal  antiseptic,  use  one  to  two  teaspoonfuls  to 
each  gallon  of  water.  As  a  spray  for  poultry  houses,  use  one  to 
five  ounces  to  the  gallon  of  water. 

PODOPHYLIN    (May  apple) 

Source — Obtained  from  the  roots  of  the  may  apple. 

Properties — A  fine  non-crystallizable  powder.  It  Is  yellowish  in 
color  and  possesses  a  peculiar,  faintly  bitter  taste. 

Action — A  powerful,  though  slow,  acting  cathartic.  In  experi- 
ments on  baby  chicks,  one-eighth  grain  doses  proved  fatal  in  42  out 
of  43  tests. 

Indications — Constipation. 

Dose — For  adult  fowl,  one-fourth  grain. 

POTASSIUM    DICHROMATE 

Properties — It  is  a  reddish-yellow  crystalline  potash  product. 
Use — A  pale,  straw-colored  solution  in  water  is  astringent  and  is 
indicated  in  sore  throat  or    sore  mouth. 

POTASSIUM    PERMANGANATE 

Source — Caustic  potash,  chlorate  of  potassium  and  black  oxid  of 
manganese  are  fused  together. 

Properties — Slender,  monoclinic  prisms,  of  a  dark  purple  color, 
odorless,  and  having  a  taste  first  of  sweet  but  afterwards  disagree- 
able and  astringent.     Permanent  in  dry  air. 

Action — An  intestinal  antiseptic. 

Indications — In  contagious  bowel  diseases,  as  fowl  cholera.  Make 
drinking  water  lightly  purple.  About  one  ounce  to  four  gallons  of 
water. 

PYRETHRUM   (Persian  insect  powder) 

Source — The  powdered  flowers  of  Pi/rethrum  roseus. 
Properties — A  coarse,  greenish-yellow,  pungent  powder. 
Use — Destroys  fleas  and  lice. 

Indication — May  be  used  to  dust  In  nests  and  on  birds  for  lice. 
Only  the  pure  product  will  give  satisfactory  results,  and  too  liberal 
quantities  should  not  be  employed.  Some  depressing  results  have 
been  observed  when  used  too  freely  upon  birds. 


238  POULTRY  DISEASES 

QUININ  SULPHATE 

Source — Obtained  by  boiling  cinchona  bark  with  hydrochloric  acid 
and  adding  lime  to  the  filtered  decoction. 

Properties — White,  silky,  light  and  fine  needle-shaped  crystals, 
with  bitter  taste. 

Action — Retards  metabolism  and  thus  lessens  the  production  of 
heat  in  the  tissues.  It  dilates  the  vessels  of  the  skin  and  therefore 
induce  loss  of  heat. 

Indications — Cold,  bronchitis  and  pneumonia. 

Dose — For  adult  fowl,  2  to  3  grains  three  times  daily. 

SANTONIN 

Source — A  neutral  principle  obtained  from  santonica.  Santonica 
is  derived  from  worm  seed. 

Properties — A  colorless,  flattened,  prismatic  crystal,  odorless  and 
almost  tasteless. 

Action — Destroys  intestinal  parasites. 

Indications — Infestation  of  intestines  with  worms. 

Dose — For  adult  fowls,  one-fourth  grain. 

SODIUM  CHLORID  (Common  or  table  salt) 

Source — Mined  in  native  state  or  obtained  by  evaporation  of  brine, 
spring  or  sea  water. 

Properties — Colorless,  transparent,  cubical  crystals  or  a  white 
crystalline  powder  with  salty  taste,  permanent  in  dry  air. 

Action — Essential  constituent  of  the  food,  since  it  is  necessary  to 
the  composition  of  hydrochloric  acid  in  the  gastric  juice  and  of 
blood  plasma,  from  which  it  is  constantly  eliminated  in  the  urine. 
Herbivorous  and  grain-eating  animals  require  sodium  chlorid  in  ad- 
dition to  that  contained  in  their  food.  While  the  blood  is  rich  in 
sodium  salts,  vegetables  are  particularly  rich  in  potassium  salts. 

Birds  deprived  of  salt  suffer  from  anemia  and  general  weakness. 
Birds  cannot  tolerate  large  doses  of  table  salt. 

Use — The  mash  should  contain  from  one-half  to  one  pound  to 
each  one  hundred  pounds  of  mash,  and  this  should  be  thoroughly 
mixed. 

SODIUM   SULPHATE    (Glauber,  salts) 

Source — The  neutralized  residue  left  in  the  manufacture  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  from  salt  with  sodium  carbonate. 

Properties — Large,  colorless,  transparent  monoclinic  prisms  or 
granular  crystals,  odorless  and  possessing  a  bitter,  salty  taste.  Upon 
exposure  to  the  air  it  gradually  becomes  a  fine  powder  and  loses  its 
water  of  crystallization. 

Action — A  cathartic  producing  a  watery  stool. 

Dose — One  tablespoonful  to  each  12  adult  fowls.  Younger  birds 
in  proportion.  It  is  best  given  dissolved  in  water  and  this  mixed 
with  mash.  It  is  dangerous  to  attempt  to  pour  liquids  down  the 
throat  of  birds,  as  there  is  great  danger  of  their  passing  into  the 
superior  larynx  and  lungs.  By  looking  into  the  throat  of  a  bird 
while  holding  the  mouth  open  one  can  observe  the  entrance  into 
the  air  passage  open  and  close. 

Indications — Constipation. 

STRYCHNIN   SULPHATE 

Source — The  alkaloid  (an  active  principle  of  nux  vomica).  Strych- 
nin sulphate  is  formed  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  strychnin. 


POULTRY  MATERIA  :MEDICA  239 

Properties — Colorless,  transparent,  octohedral  or  prismatic  white 
crystalline  powder.    Odorless  and  with  an  intensely  bitter  taste. 
Action — A  nerve  stimulant. 
Indications — Paralysis. 
Dose — For  adult  fowl,  one-fifth  grain  twice  to  three  times  daily. 

SULPHOCARBOLATES   OF   CALCIUM,  ZINC   AND  SODIUM 

Source — The  action  of  sulphuric  acid  and  carbolic  acid  on  me- 
tallic zinc,  sodium  or  calcium. 

Properties — A  white,  crystalline  powder. 

Use — In  diarrhea,  as  an  intestinal  antiseptic. 

Dose — Of  the  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  sulphocarbolate  of  calcium, 
sodium  and  zinc,  dissolve  thirty  grains  in  a  pint  of  water  and  use 
as  drink  or  with    which  to  mix  mash. 

SULPHUR  SUBLIMATUM    (Sulphur) 

Source — Obtained  from  native  sulphur  by  sublimation. 

Properties — A  fine,  yellow  powder,  having  a  slightly  characteristic 
odor  and  a  faintly  acid  taste. 

Action — Dissolved  sulphur  as  in  the  lime  and  sulphur  dip  (7 
pounds  unslaked  lime,  21  pounds  sulphur,  100  gallons  water)  is  an 
excellent  destroyer  of  parasites.  In  a  dry  state  it  has  no  effect 
upon  mites  and  perhaps  none  on  lice. 

THYME    OIL 

Source — A  volatile  distillate  from  the  Thymus  vulgaris;  source 
of  thymol. 

Properties — A  thin  liquid  of  characteristic  odor. 
Use — In  catarrhal  conditions. 

THYMOL 

Source — A  phenol  occurring  in  the  volatile  oil  of  thyme. 
Properties — Large,  colorless,  translucent  crystals  of  the  hexagonal 
system. 

Action — Destroys  intestinal  parasites. 

Indications — Infestation  by  round  worms. 

Dose — For  adult  fowl,  three  grains,  followed  by  a  physic. 

TOBACCO 

Properties — From  a  golden  yellow  to  a  chestnut  brown,  contain- 
ing an  active  principal,  nicotin. 

Use — Nicotin  is  very  destructive  to  parasites,  as  lice  and  mites. 
Tobacco  stems  and  leaves  have  no  effect  upon  them.  Dry  leaves 
and  stems  in  nests  are  useless.  A  decoction  made  by  boiling 
tobacco  stems  or  leaves  in  water  is  destructive  to  parasites  and 
contains  nicotin  in  solution.  As  a  spray,  nicotin  in  one-fourth 
of  one  per  cent  solution  will  destroy  parasites. 

WORM   SEED,  OIL  OF 

Source — Obtained  from  santonica. 

Properties — A  volatile  oil,  yellowish  in  color  with  characteristic 
odor. 

Action — Destroys  worms. 

Indications — Intestinal  worms. 

Dose — For  adult  fowls,  one  teaspoonful  to  each  twelve  birds. 


240  POULTKY  DISEASES 

ZINC  SULPHATE 

Source — Prepared  by  dissolving  metallic  zinc  in  sulphuric  acid. 

Properties — Colorless,  transparent,  rhombic  crystals,  without  odor 
and  having  an  astringent,  metallic  taste.  Changes  to  a  fine  powder 
when  exposed  to  dry  air. 

Indications — One  per  cent  solution  in  distilled  water  and  two  or 
three  drops  in  the  eye  in  case  of  inflammation  (conjunctivitis). 


IXDEX 


A 

Page 
Abdomen,  purulent  inflammation 

of  the  130 

Abdominal  cyst  162 

Abdominal  tumor  161 

Abnormal   eggs  155 

Abortion   in   birds,   epizootic 157 

Abscess  of  the  foot 190 

Abscesses  of  the  liver 151 

Acanthia  inodora  83 

Acanthocephala    98 

Achorion    schoenleinii    84 

Actinomycosis    147 

Adenoma 164 

Adrenal  glands,  anatomy  of  the..  32 

Air  sac  disease 74 

Air  sacs,  anatomy  of  the 31 

Air  sacs,  inflammation  of  the 182 

Ameba  meleagridis  Ill 

Amyloid   degeneration   152 

Anatomy  of  the  adrenal  glands..  32 

Anatomy  of  the  air  sacs 31 

Anatomy  of  the  carotid  glands....  32 
Anatomy  of  the  circulatory  sys- 
tem       32 

Anatomy  of  the  cloaca 26 

Anatomy  of  the  digestive  tract....  22 

Anatomy  of  the  esophagus 23 

Anatomy  of  the  eyes 38 

Anatomy   of    the    female    repro- 
ductive organs  42 

Anatomy  of  the  gizzard 24 

Anatomy  of  the  head 17 

Anatomy  of  the  kidneys 50 

Anatomy  of  the  large  intestine..  25 

Anatomy  of  the  larynx 29 

Anatomy  of  the  liver 26 

Anatomy  of  the  limbs 20 

Anatomy  of  the  lungs 30 

Anatomy  of  the   male   reproduc- 
tive organs  48 

Anatomy  of  the  mouth 22 

Anatomy  of  the  nasal  cavities....  28 

Anatomy  of  the  neck 17 

Anatomy  of  the  nerv^ous  system..  35 
Anatomy  of  the  organs  of  hear- 
ing      39 

Anatomy  of  the  organs  of  smell  40 
Anatomy  of  the  organs  of  special 

sense    38 

Anatomy  of  the  organs  of  taste..  40 
Anatomy  of  the  organs  of  touch  40 

Anatomy  of  the  pancreas 28 

Anatomy  of  the  pharynx 23 

Anatomy  of  the  respiratory  tract  28 
Anatomy  of  the  small  intestine..  25 

Anatomy  of  the  spleen „ 28 

Anatomy  of  the  stomach 24 

Anatomy  of  the  thymus  gland....  32 

Anatomy  of  the  trachea 30 

Anatomy   of  the   trunk 19 

Anatomy,  visceral  22 

Anesthesia  of  the  fowl 215 

Angiocholitis    151 

Aphtha    84 

Apoplectiform  septicemia  133 


Page 
Appetite  depraved  106 


Argas  miniatus 


82 


Arsenic,   poisoning  from 227 

Arthritis,    infectious  189 

Articular     inflammation,     infec- 
tious   189 

Ascaris   inflexa   87 

Ascites  129 

AspergillosTs'"".!!!'.".'."r."!!.'";i'85',"i52","l72 

Aspergillus  fumigatus 85,  152,  172 

Aspergillus  glaucus  85 

Asthenia     141 

Asthma  169 

Asthma    of  canaries 185 

Auditory  nerve,  paralysis  of  the..l98 
Autopsy,   mode  of  performing 63 


Bacillus   avisepticus  106 

Bacillus   botulinus   230 

Bacteria   of   eggs 203 

Bacteria  of  the  intestinal  tract..201 

Bacterium   asthene   141 

Bacterium  pullorum   119 

Bacterium   sanguinarium  134 

Baldness   of  canaries 86 

Beak,   broken  219 

Beak,   obstruction  of  the 101 

Bedbug  of  poultry 83 

Bee  stings  84 

Bile  ducts,  inflammation  of  the..l51 

Birds,   lice   of 65 

Blackhead    Ill 

Blastomycosis  of  geese 128 

Blood    diseases    133 

Blood  of  normal  fowl 34 

Blood  tumors  160 

Blood  vessels,  rupture  of  the 140 

Bone,   reparative  processes  of 212 

Bones,    structure    of 211 

Botulism     229 

Brain,  diseases  of  the _ 195 

Brain,  hemorrhage   of  the 195 

Bronchitis    169 

Buildings  and  runs 54 

Buildings,  disinfection  of 57 


Calculi    130 

Canaries,  asthma  of 185 

Canaries,    baldness    of 86 

Canaries,  cholera  of 135 

Canaries,   infectious  necrosis  of.. 135 
Canaries,   intestinal   diseases   of..l31 

Canaries,   intestinal  worms  of 99 

Canaries,  respiratory  troubles  of..l84 

Canaries,  septicemia  of 135 

Canaries,  septicemic  diseases  of..l35 

Canaries,  typhoid  of 135 

Canary  louse,   gray 67 

Canary-  mite  68 

Caponizing  221 

Carotid  glands,  anatomy  of  the..  32 
Castration   221 


242 


INDEX 


Page 

Catarrh  167 

Catarrh,  nasal  ~ 182 

Catarrh  of  the  crop 105 

Cercomonas   hepatis  127 

Cercomoniasis    152 

Chick,   umbilical  hernia  of  the.— 209 

Chicken   cholera  106 

Chickenpox   173 

Chickens,     apoplectiform    septi- 
cemia in  133 

Chickens,    sleeping  sickness   of.-135 

Chigger  infestation  76 

Choanota  infundibuliformis  96 

Cholecystitis    151 

Cholera   106 

Cholera    of    canaries 135 

Circulatory    svstem,    anatomy   of 

the    32 

Cloaca,  anatomy  of   the 26 

Cloaca,  prolapse  of  the 155 

Cloacitis   128 

Coccidiosis  in  wild   ducks 126 

Coccidiosis,  renal  127 

Coccidium  avium  127 

Coccidium  tenellum  119 

Cochlear  nerve,  paralysis  of  the..l98 

Colds    167 

Comb,  white  scale  of  the 85 

Combs,   frozen  218 

Congestion  of  the  liver 150 

Congestion  of  the  lungs 170 

Conjunctivitis    183 

Constitutional  diseases  141 

Contagious  epithelioma  163 

Contagious    inflammation    of  the 

air  sacs  182 

Contagious  nasal  catarrh 182 

Copper,  poisoning  from 228 

Cornea,    ulceration   of   the 184 

Coryza  avium  contagiosa 182 

Crop,  catarrh  of  the 105 

Crop  bound  103 

Crop,  enlarged  105 

Crop,  gangrene  of  the 105 

Crop,    gaseous   104 

Crop,  impaction   of  the 103 

Crop,   pendulous   105 

Crop,   tympany  of  the 104 

Croupous     inflammation     of     the 

pigeon    124 

Curvature  of  the  spine 217 

Cuticular  surface,  horny  growths 

on  the   166 

Cyst,  abdominal  162 

Cystic  ovary  160 

Cytodites  nudus   75 

D 

Davainea   echinobothrida  98 

Davainea   tetragona    97 

Bermanyssus  avium   79 

Dermanyssus  gallinae  79 

Diarrhea,    non-specific 117 

Diarrhea,    white   119 

Digestive  tract,  anatomy  of  the..  22 
Digestive  tract,  diseases  of  the. .101 
Di]>htheric    inflammation    of    the 

eyes    180 

Diphtheric   roup   174 

Dipygus  tetrabrachium  207 

Disinfection     •'^7 

Disinfection    of   buildings 57 

Disinfection  of  yards 61 

Dispharagus   laticeps   94 


Page 

Dispharagus   nasutus  94 

Dispharagus  spiralis  94 

Disposal  of  sick  and  dead  birds..  62 

Dizziness    195 

Drepanidotaenia     infundibulifor- 
mis      96 

Ducks,    coccidiosis  in 126 

Ducks,    infectious    articular    in- 
flammation   in  189 

Ducks,  inflammation  of  the  eyes 

in  180 

Ducks,   lice    of 67 

Dwarf  eggs  156 

Dysentery    117 

E 

Echinorynchus  polymorphus 98 

Egg  bound  153 

Egg,  composition  of  the 203 

Egg  shell,  composition  of  the 203 

Eggs,  abnormal  155 

Eggs,  animal  parasites  in 203 

Eggs,   bacteria  of 203 

Eggs,  dwarf —156 

Endocarslitis  -- 139 

Enteritis  117 

Enterohepatitis   Ill 

Epilepsy    195 

Epithelioma    165 

Epithelioma,  contagious  163 

Esophagus,  anatomy  of  the 23 

Eversion  of  the  oviduct 153 

Eyes,  anatomy  of  the 38 

Eves,  diphtheric  inflammation  of 
the    180 

F 

Face,   white   scale   of  the 85 

Fatty  degeneration  of  the  liver....l49 

Fatty  infiltration  of  the  liver 149 

Feathers,   anatomy  of  the 40 

Filaria  tite   94 

Fleas    80 

Flukes   99 

Foods  poisonous  to  fowls 227 

Foot,  abscess  of  the 190 

Foot   mange    72 

Fowl   cholera   106 

Fowl   pest   136 

Fowl  typhoid  134 

Fracture  of  bones,  repair  of  the.-211 

Fractures  211 

Fractures,   treatment  of 214 

Frozen   combs    218 

Fungi   affecting    birds 84 

G 

Gangrene    218 

Gangrene  of  the  crop 105 

Geese,   blastomycosis   of 128 

Geese,     infectious     articular    in- 
flammation  in   189 

Geese,    inflammation    of   the    air 

sacs   in    182 

Geese,  lice  of 67 

Geese,  renal  coccidiosis  of 127 

Geese,    septicemia  of 133 

Gizzard,  anatomy  of  the 24 

Gizzard,    suppurative    inflamma- 
tion of  the 130 

Going  light    141 

Goniocotes  gigas  66 


INDEX 


243 


Page 

Goniocotes   hologaster   66 

Goniodes   dissimillia  66 

GoniodesT  stylifer  66 

Gout  191 

H 

Head,  anatomy  of  the 17 

Hearing-,  anatomy  of  the  organs 

of  39 

Heart,   hypertrophy  of   the 140 

Heart,  rupture  of  the 140 

Hematoma     160 

Hemorrhage  of  the  brain 195 

Hepatitis,  protozoal  127 

Hernia   of    the    babv    chick,   um- 
bilical   209 

Heterakis   compressa  93 

Heterakis   differens  93 

Heterakis   maculosa    94 

Heterakis  papillosa  89 

Heterakis  persnicillum  S7 

Honey-comb  ringworm   84 

Horny   growths  on  the   cuticular 

surface    166 

Hypertrophy  of  the  heart 140 

1 

Impaction  of  the  crop 103 

Impaction  of  the  intestines 104 

Infectious   leukemia    134 

Infectious  necrosis  of  canaries... .135 

Inflammation,  articular  189 

Inflammation  of  the  abdomen 130 

Inflammation  of  the  air  sacs 182 

Inflammation  of  the  bile  ducts. ...151 
Inflammatiton     of     the     eyes     in 

ducks   180 

Inflammation  of  the  gizzard 130 

Inflammation   of  the   liver 151 

Inflammation  of  the  lungs 171 

Inflammation  of  the  oil  gland 157 

Ingluvitis    105 

Iniury  to  the  sternum 217 

Intestinal  tract,  bacteria  of  the..20l 

Intestines,  anatomy  of  the 25 

Intestines,  impaction  of  the 104 

J 

Jaundice  152 

Jigger  or  red  mite 76 

K 

Kidneys,  anatomy  of  the 50 

Kidneys,  coccidiosis  of  the 127 

L 

Large  intestine,  anatomy  of  the  26 

Larynx,  anatomy  of  the 29 

Lead,    poisoning   from 228 

Leg    weakness 187 

Legs,   scaly   72 

Leukemia,    infectious  134 

Leukemia,    myeloid   134 

Lice,  life  history  of 68 

Lice   of   birds 6o 

Lice  of  canaries 67 

Lice  of  ducks 67 

Lice  of  geese 67 


Page 

Lice  of  pigeons 67 

Lice   of   turkeys 66 

Limber  neck  229 

Limbs,  anatomy  of  the 20 

Lipeurus   baculus  67 

Lipeurus   infuscatus   66 

Lipeurus  .iejunus  67 

Lipeurus  polytrapezius  67 

Lipeurus   squalidus  67 

Liver,   abscesses   and  tumors   of 

the    151 

Liver,  anatomy  of  the 26 

Liver,   congestion    of   the 150 

Liver,   diseases  of  the 149 

Liver,  fatty  degeneration  of  the. .149 
Liver,   fatty  infiltration   of  the.... 149 

Liver,   inflammation  of  the 151 

Liver,  rupture  of  the 150 

Louse   infestation,   dealing  with.. ..69 

Louse  infestation,  effects  of 69 

Lungs,  anatomy  of  the 30 

Lungs,   congestion  of  the 170 

Lungs,  inflammation  of  the 171 

Lymph   vessels   35 

M 

]\Iacrodactylus   subspinosus   Fab. 227 

Malformations   207 

Mange,  foot  ^2 

Materia  medica  231 

Menopon  b.iseriatuin  65 

^lenopon  obscurum  67 

Menopon  pallidum  65 

Monocercomonas  gal'inarum 15? 

Mouth,  anatomy  of  the 22 

jNIouth,  sore  103 

Mvcosis  of  pig^eons 85 

Myelitis  196 

Myeloid    leukemia   134 

N 

Nasal  catarrh,   contagious 182 

Nasal  cavities,  anatomy  of  the....  28 

Neck,  anatomy  of  the 17 

Nephritis    129 

Nerves,  diseases  of  the 195 

Nervous  system,  anatomy  of  the  35 

Nodular  tapeworm   disease 97 

Notocotyle  verrucosum  99 

O 

Obstruction  of  the  beak 101 

Obstruction  of  the  oviduct 153 

Obstruction  of  the  trachea 167 

Oidium  albicans  84 

Oil  gland,  inflammation  of  the. ...157 
Organs    of    locomotion,    diseases 

of  the  187 

Organs    of    special    sense,    anat- 
omy of  38 

Osteoma   165 

Ovariectomy  225 

Ovary    and    oviduct,    diseases   of 

the    153 

Ovary,   cystic   160 

Ovary,   multiple  tumors  of  the....l60 

Oviduct,  broken  eggs  in 155 

Oviduct,  obstruction  of  the 153 

Oviduct,  prolapse  or  eversion  of 

the    153 

Oviduct,  rupture  of  the 154 


244 


INDEX 


p 

Pagre 

Pancreas,  anatomy  of  the 28 

Papilloma    166 

Paralysis  of  the  auditory  nervcins 
Paralysis  of  the   cochlear  nerve. .198 
Paralysis  of  the  vestibular  nerve. 198 
Paralysis    of    the   wings    of    pig- 
eons     189 

Parasites,    external  65 

Parasites    in    eggs 203 

Parasites,    internal    87 

Pericarditis     139 

Peritonitis   128 

Pestis  avium    136 

Pharyngitis,    ulcerative  169 

Pharynx,   anatomy  of  the 23 

Phosphorus,   poisoning  from 228 

Pica    106 

Pigeons,    apoplectiform    septice- 
mia in  133 

Pigeons,    croupous    inflammation 

of    124 

Pigeons,  lice  of 67 

Pigeons,    mycosis   of 85 

Pigeons,    paralysis   of   the  wings 

of    189 

Pigeons,  protozoal  hepatitis  of.... 127 

Pip    102 

Pneumomycosis  85,   172 

Pneumonia 171 

Poisoning   from    arsenic 227 

Poisoning  from    copper 228 

Poisoning  from  lead 228 

Poisoning   from    phosphorus 228 

poisoning  from  rose  chafer 227 

Poisoning  from    salt 228 

Poisoning  from   saltpeter 228 

Poisoning    from    zinc 228 

Poisoning,  ptomain  228 

Poisonous   foods   227 

Polymelus    208 

Polyneuritis    196 

Polyneuritis  gallinarum    196 

Poultry  plant,  site  for 53 

Pox  of  turkeys 180 

Prolapse  of  the  cloaca 155 

Prolapse   of   the   oviduct 1?>3 

Protozoal    hepatitis   of   pigeons... .127 

Pseudo- tuberculosis    147 

Psorospermosis    128 

Ptomain    poisoning   228 

Pulex  avium    80 

R 

Remedies    for   poultry 231 

Renal    coccidiosis    127 

Reproductive  organs  of  the  male, 

anatomy  of  48 

Reproductive    organs    of   the    fe- 
male,   anatomy   of 42 

Respiratory     passages,     diseases 

of   the    167 

Respiratory    tract,     anatomy    of 

the    28 

Respiratory  troubles  of  canaries. 184 

Restraint   of   the   fowl 215 

Rose   chafer   227 

Round    worms,    important 87 

Round  worms,    unimportant 93 

Roup     174 

Rupture  of   the  heart  and  large 

blood-vessels    140 

Rupture  of  the  liver 150 

Rupture  of  the  oviduct 154 


S 

Page 

Saccharomyces  albicans  84 

Salt,    poisoning   from 228 

Saltpeter,    poisoning   from 228 

Sanitation    53 

Sarcocystis    128 

Sarcoma   164 

Sarcoptes   mutans 73 

Sarcopsylla  gallinacea  81 

Scabies    72 

Scaly   legs  72 

Septicemia,    apoplectiform      133 

Septicemia   of  canaries 135 

Septicemia   of  geese 133 

Septicemic  diseases  of  canaries. .135 

Skin,  anatomy  of  the 40 

Sleeping  sickness   of  chickens 135 

Small  intestine,  anatomy  of  the..  25 
Smell,  anatomy  of  the  organs  of..  40 

Sore    mouth    84 

Spine,   curvature   of  the 217 

Spirocheta  gallinarum  138 

Spirochetosis    138 

Spiroptera   hamulosa    90 

Spleen,   anatomy  of   the 28 

Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus. 189 

Sternum,   injury  to  the 217 

Stomach,   anatomy  of  the 24 

Stomatitis    10'. 

Streptococcus  gallinarum  133 

Subcutem,  diseases  of  the 147 

Swell-head    in   young   turkeys 172 

Syngamus  trachealis   92 

T 

Taenia  infundibuliformis  96 

Tapeworm    disease,    nodular 97 

Tapeworms     "4 

Taste,  anatomy  of  the  organs  of  40 

Teratoma     164 

Thrombosis   137 

Thrush 84 

Thymus  gland,  anatomy  of  the..  32 

Tick   infestation   82 

Tinea   favosa   84 

Touch,  anatomy  of  the  organs  of  40 

Trachea,    anatomy   of   the 30 

Trachea,   obstruction  of  the 167 

Trematodes     99 

Trichomoniasis    124 

Trichosoma   contortum   94 

Trichosomum   93 

Trinoton   continuvmi   67 

Trombidium   holosericeum  76 

Trunk,  anatomy  of  the 19 

Tuberculosis   143 

Tumor,  caseous  abdominal 161 

Tumors   159 

Tumors,   blood 16'> 

Tumors  of  the  ovary,  multiple....l60 

Turkeys,   lice    of 66 

Turkeys,   pox   of 180 

Turkeys,   swell-head  in 172 

Tympany   of   the  crop 104 

Typhoid     134 

Typhoid  of  canaries 135 

U 

laceration  of  the  cornea 184 

ITlcerative    pharyngitis    169 

Umbilical    hernia    of    the    baby 

chick    209 

Urinary   secretion    50 


INDEX 


245 


V 

Papre 

Vertigo    195 

Vestibular     nerve,     paralysis    of 

the    198 

Visceral   anatomy    22 

W 

Warts    166 

Water    supply    56 

Wattles,    white   scale  of  the S5 

White  diarrhea  119 

White    scale    of   the    comb,    face 

and   wattles   85 

Wild   ducks,    coccidiosis   in 126 


Pa^e 

Wings,   paralysis   of  the 189 

Worms,    eradication    of 91 

Worms,  flat  segmented 94 

Worms    of    canaries 99 

Worms,   round  87 

Worms,   thorn-headed  98 

Wounds    215 

Y 

Yards,   disinfection   of 61 

Z 
Zinc,    poisoning  from 228 


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